ESS 454

Hydrogeology
Module 4
Flow to Wells
• Preliminaries, Radial Flow and Well Function
• Non-dimensional Variables, Theis “Type” curve, and
Cooper-Jacob Analysis
• Aquifer boundaries, Recharge, Thiem equation
• Other “Type” curves
• Well Testing
• Last Comments

Instructor: Michael Brown

[email protected]
 Wells:
Intersection of Society and
Groundwater
Hydrologic Balance in absence of wells:
Fluxin- Fluxout= DStorage

Removing water fromnwells le

itabMUST
ev
change naturale s a re i
discharge or recharge
e quenc
or Cons amount stored
change

It is the role of the Hydrogeologist

to evaluate the nature of the
consequences and to quantify the
magnitude of effects
 Road Map
A Hydrogeologist needs to:
• Understand natural and induced flow in the aquifer
• Determine aquifer properties
– T and S
• Determine aquifer geometry:
– How far out does the aquifer continue,
Math: – how much total water is available?

• plethora of equations • Evaluate “Sustainability” issues

– Determine whether the aquifer is adequately “recharged” or has enough “storage” to
• All solutions to the diffusion equation support proposed pumping
• Given various geometries and – Determine the change in natural discharge/recharge caused by pumping

initial/final conditions
Goal here:
Need an entire course 1. Understand the basic principles
devoted to “Wells and 2. Apply a small number of well testing methods
Well Testing”
 Module Four Outline

• Flow to Wells
– Qualitative behavior
– Radial coordinates
– Theis non-equilibrium solution
– Aquifer boundaries and recharge
– Steady-state flow (Thiem Equation)
• “Type” curves and Dimensionless variables
• Well testing
– Pump testing
– Slug testing
 Concepts and Vocabulary
• Radial flow, Steady-state flow, transient flow, non-equilibrium
• Cone of Depression
• Diffusion/Darcy Eqns. in radial coordinates
– Theis equation, well function
– Theim equation
• Dimensionless variables
• Forward vs Inverse Problem
• Theis Matching curves
• Jacob-Cooper method
• Specific Capacity
• Slug tests
• Log h vs t
– Hvorslev falling head method
• H/H0 vs log t
– Cooper-Bredehoeft-Papadopulos method
• Interference, hydrologic boundaries
• Borehole storage
• Skin effects
• Dimensionality
• Ambient flow, flow logging, packer testing
 Module Learning Goals

• Master new vocabulary

• Understand concepts of “non-equilibrium flow”, ”steady-state flow” and “transient flow” and the geologic conditions that control flow
• Recognize the diffusion equation and Darcy’s Law in axial coordinates
• Understand (qualitatively and quantitatively) how water is produced from an aquifer to the well for both confined and unconfined
aquifers
• Understand how the Theis equation was derived and be able to use the well function to calculate drawdown as a function of time and
distance
• Be able to use non-dimensional variables to characterize the behavior of flow from wells
• Be able to identify when the Thiem equation is appropriate and use it in quantitative calculations
• Be able to use Theis and Jacob-Cooper methods to determine aquifer transmissivity and storativity
• Be able to describe how draw-down curves are impacted by aquifer properties or recharge/barrier boundaries and quantitatively
estimate the size of an aquifer
• Understand how aquifer properties are determined in slug tests and be able to undertake quantitative analysis of Hvorslev and Cooper-
Bredehoeft-Papadopulos tests.
• Be able to describe what controls flow from wells starting at early time and extending to long time intervals
• Be able to describe quantitatively how drawdown behaves if nearby wells have overlapping cones of depression
• Understand the limits to what has been developed in this module
 Learning Goals- This Video

• Understand the role of a hydrogeologist in evaluating

groundwater resources
• Be able to apply the diffusion equation in radial coordinates
• Understand (qualitatively and quantitatively) how water is
produced from a confined aquifer to the well
• Understand the assumptions associated with derivation of
the Theis equation
• Be able to use the well function to calculate drawdown as a
function of time and distance
 Important Note

• Will be using many plots to understand flow to

wells
– Some are linear x and linear y
– Some are log(y) vs log(x)
– Some are log(y) vs linear x
– Some are linear y vs log(x)
• Make a note to yourself to pay attention to
these differences!!
 Assumptions Required for Derivations
Cone of
Depression

Pump well Observation Wells

surface
Potentiometric surface
Draw-down

Radial flow Confined Aquifer

Assumptions
1. Aquifer bounded on bottom, horizontal and infinite, isotropic and homogeneous
2. Initially horizontal potentiometric surface, all change due to pumping
3. Fully penetrating and screened wells of infinitesimal radius
4. 100% efficient – drawdown in well bore is equal to drawdown in aquifer
5. Radial horizontal Darcy flow with constant viscosity and density
 Equations in axial coordinates
Cartesian Coordinates: x, y, z

Axial Coordinates: r, q, z r q

Will use Radial flow:

No vertical flow
Same flow at all angles q
Flow only outward or inward r
Flow size depends only on r b

Flow
For a cylinder of radius through
r and height b : surface of
area 2prb
 Equations in axial coordinates
Darcy’s Law:
dh
Diffusion Equation: Q = KA
Area of cylinder dr

dh T 2 Leakage:
K 'Dh dh
= Ñ h+ e e= Water infiltrating through
= K 2 p rb
dt S b' confining layer with
dr
properties K’ and b’ and no
storage.
dh
= 2p Tr
Need to write in axial coordinates
dr
with no q or z dependences

dh T æ d2 h 1 dhö e Equation to solve for

= ç 2 + ÷+ flow to well
dt S è dr r dr ø S
 Flow to Well in Confined
Aquifer with no Leakage
Pump at constant
flow rate of Q surface
ho: Initial potentiometric surface

ho r Gradient
needed to
induce flow
Wanted: ho-h
Drawdown as function of Drawdown must increase
distance and time to maintain gradient
h(r,t)

Radial flow
Confined Aquifer
 Theis Equation
His solution (in 1935) to Diffusion equation for radial flow to well
subject to appropriate boundary conditions and initial condition:
Story: Charles Theis went to his mathematician friend C. I. Lubin who gave him

h= ho for all r at t=0 the solution to this problem but then refused to be a co-author on the paper
because Lubin thought his contribution was trivial. Similar problems in heat flow
for all time at r=infinity had been solved in the 19th Century by Fourier and were given by Carlslaw in
1921
dh
Q = -2p Tr
dr r®rw
Important step: use a non- r2S For u=1, this was the
dimensional variable that u= definition of characteristic
includes both r and t 4Tt time and length
Solutions to the diffusion equation depend only on the ratio of r2 to t!

Q ¥
e-a Q
ho - h=
4p T
ò da = W(u) W(u) is the
“Well Function”
u a 4p T
No analytic solution
 Theis Equation
Need values of W for different values of the dimensionless variable u

1. Get from Appendix 1 of Fetter

o u is given to 1 significant figure – may need to interpolate

2. Calculate “numerically”
o Matlab® command is W=quad(@(x)exp(-x)/x, u,10);

3. Use a series expansion

o Any function can over some range be represented by the sum
of polynomial terms
u2 u3 u4
For u<1 W(u) @ -0.5772 - ln(u) + u- + - +
4 18 96
 Well Function u W
Units of length dimensionless
10-10 22.45
Q rS2
ho - h= W(u) u= 10-9 20.15
4p T 4Tt
dimensionless 10-8 17.84
10-7 15.54
11 orders of magnitude!!
For a fixed time: 10-6 13.24
As r increases, u increases and W gets smaller
10-5 10.94
Less drawdown farther from well
10-4 8.63
10-3 6.33
At any distance 10-2 4.04
As time increases, u decreases and W gets bigger
10-1 1.82
More drawdown the longer water is pumped 100 0.22
Non-equilibrium: continually increasing drawdown
101 <10-5
 Well Function
Examples Use English units:
feet and days
Aquifer with: Pumping rate:
T=103 ft2/day Q=0.15 cfs
S = 10-3 Q/4pT ~1 foot u= (S/4T)x(r2/t)
T/S=106 ft2/day Well diameter 1’ u=2.5x10-7(r2/t) Dh (ft)

How much drawdown at well screen (r=0.5’) after 24 hours? 6.2x10-8 16.0
How much drawdown 100’ away after 24 hours? 2.5x10-3 5.4

How much drawdown 157’ away after 24 hours? 6.3x10-3 4.5

How much drawdown 500’ away after 10 days? 6.3x10-3 4.5

Same drawdown for different

times and distances
 Well Function

Cone of Depression

Continues to go
down
After 1000
After 1Days
30 Days
After ofPumping
Dayof
of Pumping
Pumping

Notice similar shape for time and distance dependence

Notice decreasing curvature with distance and time
The End: Preliminaries, Axial
coordinate, and Well Function

Coming up “Type” matching Curves

 ESS 454
Hydrogeology
Module 4
Flow to Wells
• Preliminaries, Radial Flow and Well Function
• Non-dimensional Variables, Theis “Type” curve, and
Cooper-Jacob Analysis
• Aquifer boundaries, Recharge, Thiem equation
• Other “Type” curves
• Well Testing
• Last Comments

Instructor: Michael Brown

[email protected]
 Learning Objectives

• Understand what is meant by a “non-dimensional” variable

• Be able to create the Theis “Type” curve for a confined aquifer
• Understand how flow from a confined aquifer to a well
changes with time and the effects of changing T or S
• Be able to determine T and S given drawdown measurements
for a pumped well in a confined aquifer
 Theis “Type” curve matching method
 Cooper-Jacob method
 Theis Well Function

• Confined Aquifer of infinite extent

• Water provided from storage and by flow
– Two aquifer parameters in calculation
– T and S lem
b
P o
rrate
• Choose pumpingd
ar
• Calculate
or w
Drawdown with time and distance
F
 Theis Well Function

• What if we wanted to know something about

the aquifer?
– Transmissivity and Storage?
• Measure drawdown l emas a function of time
o b
r values of T and S are
• Determine what
e P
e
consistent rs
nv with the observations
I
 u W
Theis Well Function 10-10 22.45
10-9 20.15
Non-dimensional r S W = 4p T (ho - h)
2
10-8 17.84
variables u=
4Tt Q 10-7 15.54
10-6 13.24
Plot as log-log 3 orders of magnitude 10-5 10.94
Using 1/u 10-4 8.63

“Type” Curve 10-3 6.33

10-2 4.04
Contains all information about 5 orders of magnitude
how a well behaves if Theis’s
assumptions are correct 10-1 1.82
100 0.22
Use this curve to get T and S 1/u 101 <10-5
from actual data
 Theis Well Function
Why use log plots? Several reasons:

If quantity changes over orders of magnitude, a linear plot

may compress important trends

Feature of logs: log(A*B/C) = log(A)+log(B)-log(C)

Plot of log(A) is same as plot of log(A*B/C) with offset log(B)-log(C)

We will determine this offset when “curve matching”
Offset determined by identifying a “match point”

log(A2)=2*log(A) Slope of linear trend in log plot is equal to the exponent

 Theis Curve Matching
Plot data on log-log paper with same spacing as the “Type” curve
Slide curve horizontally and vertically until data and curve overlap

Q
Dh=2.4 feet
T=
4p W(ho - h)
Match point
at u=1 and 4Ttu
W=1 S=
r2
time=4.1 minutes
 Semilog Plot of “Non-
equilibrium” Theis equation
After initial time, drawdown increases with log(time)

Ideas:

Linear drawdown
1. At early time water is 2T
delivered to well from Initial non- T
linear curve
“elastic storage” Double T -> slope
then linear with decreases to half
 head does not go down
log(time)
much
 Larger intercept for larger
Log time
storage Intercept time increases with S
2. After elastic storage is
Delivery from
depleted water has to elastic storage De
flow to well liv
er
yf
Double S and
ro
 Head decreases to m
flo
w
intercept changes but
maintain an adequate slope stays the same
hydraulic gradient
 Rate of decrease is
inversely proportional to T
 Cooper-Jacob Method
Theis Well function in series expansion
2 3
Theseutermsu u4negligible
become
W(u) @ -0.5772 - ln(u) + u- + - +
as time
4 goes18
on 96

r2S If t is large then u is much less than 1.

u= u2 , u3, and u4 are even smaller.
4Tt

Theis equation -Q é æ r 2 S öù -Q é æ r 2 S öù Q
(ho - h) = ê0.5772 + ln ç ÷ú = êln(1.78) + ln ç ÷ú + ln ( t)
for large t 4p T ë è 4Tt øû 4p T ë è 4T øû 4 p T

Q æ 4T ö Qpe
Head decreases linearly with log(time) = constant
ln ç ÷ + lo ln ( t)
4p T è 1.78r 2 S ø 4sp T
– slope is inversely proportional to T
2.3Q Conversion to
– constant is proportional to S = constant+ log(t) base 10 log
4p T
 Cooper-Jacob Method
Works for “late-time” drawdown data
Solve inverse problem: Given drawdown vs time data for a
well pumped at rate Q, what are
Using equations from the aquifer properties T and S?
previous slide
intercept
to
2.3Q Calculate T Fit line through linear range of data
T= from Q and Dh
Need to clearly see “linear” behavior
Line defined by slope and intercept
4pDh Not
acc
ept
abl
e
Slope =Dh/1
2.25Tto Dh for 1 log unit
S= Need T, to and
r2 r to calculate S
1 log unit
 Summary

• Have investigated the well drawdown behavior for an infinite confined

aquifer with no recharge
– Non-equilibrium – always decreasing head
– Drawdown vs log(time) plot shows (early time) storage contribution and (late
time) flow contribution
• Two analysis methods to solve for T and S
– Theis “Type” curve matching for data over any range of time
– Cooper-Jacob analysis if late time data are available
• Deviation of drawdown observations from the expected behavior
shows a breakdown of the underlying assumptions
Coming up: What happens when
the Theis assumptions fail?
 ESS 454
Hydrogeology
Module 4
Flow to Wells
• Preliminaries, Radial Flow and Well Function
• Non-dimensional Variables, Theis “Type” curve, and
Cooper-Jacob Analysis
• Aquifer boundaries, Recharge, Thiem equation
• Other “Type” curves
• Well Testing
• Last Comments

Instructor: Michael Brown

[email protected]
 Learning Objectives

• Recognize causes for departure of well drawdown data from the Theis
“non-equilibrium” formula
• Be able to explain why a pressure head is necessary to recover water from a
confined aquifer
• Be able to explain how recharge is enhanced by pumping
• Be able to qualitatively show how drawdown vs time deviates from Theis
curves in the case of leakage, recharge and barrier boundaries
• Be able to use diffusion time scaling to estimate the distance to an aquifer
boundary
• Understand how to use the Thiem equation to determine T for a confined
aquifer or K for an unconfined aquifer
• Understand what Specific Capacity is and how to determine it.
 When Theis Assumptions Fail

1. Total head becomes equal to the elevation head

• To pump, a confined aquifer must have pressure head
• Cannot pump confined aquifer below elevation head
• Pumping rate has to decrease

2. Aquifer ends at some distance from well

• Water cannot continue to flow in from farther away
• Drawdown has to increase faster and/or pumping rate has to
decrease
 When Theis Assumptions Fail
“Negative” pressure does not work to
produce water in a confined aquifer Reduce pressure
straw by “sucking”
No amount of
“sucking” will work

Air pressure in unconfined

aquifer pushes water up
well when pressure is cap
reduced in borehole If aquifer is confined,
and pressure in
borehole is zero, no
water can move up
borehole
 When Theis Assumptions Fail

3. Leakage through confining layer provides recharge

• Decrease in aquifer head causes increase in Dh across aquitard
 Pumping enhances recharge
 When cone of depression is sufficiently large, recharge equals pumping
rate

4. Cone of depression extends out to a fixed head source

• Water flows from source to well
 Flow to well in Confined
Aquifer with leakage
As cone of depression expands, at some point recharge
through the aquitard may balance flow into well
larger area -> more recharge
larger Dh -> more recharge
surface
ho: Initial potentiometric surface

D
h Aquifer above Aquitard
K 'Dh
e=
b' Increased flow through aquitard

Confined Aquifer
Flow to Well in Confined Aquifer with
Recharge Boundary

surface
ho: Initial potentiometric surface
Lake

o well
e ad t
fixed h
t from
d ie n
G ra

Confined Aquifer
 Flow to Well –Transition to
Steady State Behavior

Both leakage and recharge

boundary give steady-state T
l=2 t
behavior after some time S
interval of pumping, t

Hydraulic head stabilizes Steady-state

No
at a constant value n-
eq
ui
lib
The size of the steady-state riu
m
cone of depression or the
distance to the recharge t
boundary can be estimated
 Steady-State Flow
Thiem Equation – Confined Aquifer
When hydraulic head does not change with time
dh
Q = 2p Tr Darcy’s Law in radial coordinates
dr surface

Q dr
dh= Rearrange h1 h2
2p T r r1
r2 Confined Aquifer
h2 r2
Q dr
ò dh =
2p T
ò r
Integrate both sides
h1 r1
Determine T from drawdown
at two distances
h2 - h1 =
Q r Q r
ln 2 Result T= ln 2 In Steady-state – no
2p T r1 2p (h2 - h1 ) r1 dependence on S
 Steady-State Flow
Thiem Equation – Unconfined Aquifer
When hydraulic head does not change with time
db
Q = 2p Kbr Darcy’s Law in radial coordinates surface
dr
Q dr
bdb= Rearrange b1 b2
2p K r r1
r2
b2 r2
Q dr
ò bdb =
2p K
ò r
Integrate both sides
b1 r1
Determine K from drawdown
at two distances
Q r Q r2
b22 - b12 = ln 2 Result K= ln In Steady-state – no
p K r1 p (b22 - b12) r1 dependence on S
 Specific Capacity (driller’s term)
1. Pump well for at least several hours – likely not in steady-state

2. Record rate (Q) and maximum drawdown at well head (Dh)

3. Specific Capacity = Q/Dh

This is often approximately equal to the Transmissivity

Why??

Q 1 rfar 1 rfar 1 1000 7

T= ln
?? ln » ln » »1
(hfar - hwell ) 2p rwell 2p rwell 6 1 6
Specific Capacity
 Driller’s log available online
Example: My Well through Washington State
Department of Ecology

Typical glaciofluvial geology

Till to 23 ft
Clay-rich sand to 65’
6” bore
Screened for last 5’ Sand and gravel to 68’

Q=21*.134*60*24
= 4.1x103 ft3/day
Static head is 15’ below surface
Specific capacity of:
=4.1x103/8=500 ft2/day
Pumped at 21 gallons/minute K is about 100 ft/day
for 2 hours
(typical “good”
Drawdown of 8’
sand/gravel value)
The End: Breakdown of Theis assumptions and steady-state behavior

Coming up: Other “Type” curves

 ESS 454
Hydrogeology
Module 4
Flow to Wells
• Preliminaries, Radial Flow and Well Function
• Non-dimensional Variables, Theis “Type” curve, and
Cooper-Jacob Analysis
• Aquifer boundaries, Recharge, Thiem equation
• Other “Type” curves
• Well Testing
• Last Comments

Instructor: Michael Brown

[email protected]
 Learning Objectives

 Forward problem: Understand how to use the Hantush-

Jacob formula to predict properties of a confined aquifer
with leakage
 Inverse problem: Understand how to use Type curves for
a leaky confined aquifer to determine T, S, and B
 Understand how water flows to a well in an unconfined
aquifer
o Changes in the nature of flow with time
o How to use Type curves
 Other Type-Curves
Given without Derivations

1. Leaky Confined Aquifer Same curve matching exercise as with

• Hantush-Jacob Formula Theis Type-curves
• Appendix 3 of Fetter

New dimensionless number

Q
ho - h= W(u, r B) Larger r/B -> smaller steady-state drawdown
4p T
Drawdown reaches
“steady-state” when
Large K’
Tb' recharge balances flow
B= makes r/B
K' large “Type Curves” to determine T, S, and r/B
 Other Type-curves –
Given without Derivations

Similar to Theis but more complicated:

2. Unconfined Aquifer 1. Initial flow from elastic storage - S
• Neuman Formula 2. Late time flow from gravity draining – Sy
• Appendix 6 of Fetter • Remember: Sy>>S
3. Vertical and horizontal flow –
Three non-dimensional variables
• Kv may differ from Kh
Q r2S
ho - h= W(uA, uB, G) uA =
Initial flow
4p T 4Tt from Storativity

2 Difference between r 2 Sy
rK uB =
Later flow from
G= 2 v vertical and horizontal
gravity draining
b Kh conductivity is 4Tt
important
 Flow in Unconfined Aquifer

Start Pumping surface

Time order Vertical flow (gravity draining)

1. Elastic Storage
Flow from elastic storage

2. Flow from gravity

draining and
horizontal head
gradient Horizontal flow induced by gradient in head
 Other Type-curves –
Given without Derivations
Theis curve using Specific Yield

2. Unconfined Aquifer Transition depends on ratio r2Kv/(Khb2)

• Neuman Formula Theis curve using Elastic Storage
• Appendix 6 of Fetter

Two-step curve matching:

1. Fit early time data S
E las ti c Storato
ge A-
ds on
Depencurves
type
2. Fit late time data ifi
toldB-
c Yie Sy
S p e c
type ds on
Depencurves Sy=1034*S
The End: Other Type Curves

Coming up: Well Testing

 ESS 454
Hydrogeology
Module 4
Flow to Wells
• Preliminaries, Radial Flow and Well Function
• Non-dimensional Variables, Theis “Type” curve, and
Cooper-Jacob Analysis
• Aquifer boundaries, Recharge, Thiem equation
• Other “Type” curves
• Well Testing
• Last Comments

Instructor: Michael Brown

[email protected]
 Learning Objectives

• Understand what is learned through “well testing”

• Understand how “pump tests” and “slug (bailer) tests”
are undertaken
• Be able to interpret Cooper-Bredehoeft-Papadopulos
and Hvorslev slug tests
 Testing
Desired Outcome:
Gain understanding of the aquifer
• Its “size” both
– physical extent and geometry
– amount of water
• The ease of water flow and how it moves to well
• Consequences of pumping
 Testing
Goals:

Determine Aquifer T and S (not all methods)

Identify recharge or barrier boundaries

 Testing
Methods:
Already worked examples
• Pump Testing in process of developing
understanding of how
– Maintain a constant flow water flows to wells
• Measure the transient pressure/head
• Best to use “observation wells” but often too expensive
– Maintain constant pressure/head
Topics for follow on
• Measure transient flow
courses
– Recovery test
• stop pumping and measure head as it return to initial state
 Testing
Methods:

• Slug Test (can be done in a single well)

– Look at pressure/head decay after instant charge
of water level Can (1) pour water in rapidly
(2) drop in object (slug) to raise water level
– Various methods (3) bail water out (to rapidly drop water level)
– Skin-effects
Unwanted complication: Low
hydraulic conductivity around well
as a result of the drilling process
 Cooper-Bredehoeft-PapadopolosTest

Dimensionless number
Goes from 1 to 0
Plot: H(t)/Ho vs log(Tt/rc2) Call it z
rc surface
1

rs2/rc2 S Smaller S H(t) Ho

H(t)/Ho

Initial head
Head returns
slug
to initial state
Increased head
0 causes radial
b
0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 flow into aquifer
z=Tt/rc2
rs
 Cooper-Bredehoeft-PapadopolosTest

rs= 1.0’
rc= 0.5’ .8

Tt
z= .6
rc2
zrc2

H/Ho
1*.25 ft2
T= =
1 1 day
t 21* * .4
60 24

rs2
m = 10-2
m= 2S .2
rc

rc2 .25 Match

S= 2 m = 10 -2 = 2.5×10 -3
rs
0 point at z=1,
1 t=21 minutes1 10 1000
100
minutes
 Works for piezometer or auger hole
Hvorslev Slug Test placed to monitor water or water
quality – not fully penetrating
r

Log scale
K only determined
1
.8 2 æ Le ö
.7 r ln ç ÷

casing
è Rø
.6 K=
.5 H/Ho=.37 2Let37
H/Ho

.4
.3

.2 Le/R must be >8 Gravel pack

t37
Le
Screen
.
1 2 4 6 8 10
minutes
Linear scale Partially Penetrating OK
R high K material
The End: Well Testing

Coming up: Final Comments

 ESS 454
Hydrogeology
Module 4
Flow to Wells
• Preliminaries, Radial Flow and Well Function
• Non-dimensional Variables, Theis “Type” curve, and
Cooper-Jacob Analysis
• Aquifer boundaries, Recharge, Thiem equation
• Other “Type” curves
• Well Testing
• Last Comments

Instructor: Michael Brown

[email protected]
 Learning Objectives

• Understand contribution of borehole storage and skin effects to flow to wells

• Be able to identify factors controlling well flow from initiation of pumping to
late time
• Understand (qualitatively and quantitatively) what is meant by well interference
• Understand the effect of boundaries (recharge and barrier) on flow to wells
• Understand what is meant by ambient flow in a borehole and what information
can be gained from flow logging or a packer test
• Recognize the large range of geometries in natural systems and the limits to
application of the models discussed in this module
 Borehole Storage
When pumping begins, the first water comes from the borehole
If the aquifer has low T and S, a large Dh may be needed to induce flow into the well
If water is coming from Borehole Storage, Dh will be proportional to time
Example: A King County domestic water well 1 gallon =.134 ft3

200’ of 0.5’ well bore = p*0.252*200=39 ft3

420’ deep
0.5’ diameter
Head is 125’ below surface 2 gallons/minute = 32 ft3 in 2 hour
5’ screened in silty sand
During pump test all water came from well bore.
Pump test: This is not a very good well
Q=2 gallons/minute
Dh=200’ after 2 hours Need to know how long it takes for water to
recover when pump is turned off
 Skin Effects

 Drilling tends to smear clay into aquifer near the borehole

• Leads to low conductivity layer around the screen
• Tends to retard flow of water into well
 Slug test (or any single well test) may
• measure properties of skin and not properties of aquifer
 Critical step is “Well development”
• water is surged into and out of well to clear the skin
 Controls on flow in wells:
in order of impact from early to late time

– Borehole storage
– Skin effect
– Aquifer Storativity
– Aquifer Transmissivity
– Recharge/barrier boundaries
 Well interference

And Barrier Boundary

• Drawdown with barrier boundary of
aquifer can be calculated as the
interference due to an “image” well
Confined Aquifer

Greater drawdown
Hydraulic head is measure of energy Smaller hydraulic gradient
Energy is a scalar and is additive Reduced flow to wells
Just add drawdown for each well to get total drawdown Flow divide between wells
 Boundary and Dimension Effects
2-D
1-D

3-D

Reservoir geometry
Network/Flow geometry
Discussion of ways to deal with these “real-world” situations is beyond the scope of this class
 Last Comments on well testing

• If data don’t fit the analysis

• Wrong assumptions
• Interesting geology
• Don’t “force a square peg through a round hole”
– Don’t try to make data fit a curve that is inappropriate for
the situation
• Much more to cover in a follow up course!
 Well Logging

• Ambient Flow logging

o measurement of flow in borehole at different depths in absence
of pumping
o In an open (uncased) well, water will flow between regions with
different hydraulic head
• “Packer test”
o utilizes a device that closes off a small portion of an uncased well
o measures the local hydraulic head

• Much more to discuss in follow-on courses

 Summary

• Master new vocabulary

• Understand concepts of “non-equilibrium flow”, ”steady-state flow” and “transient flow” and the geologic conditions that control flow
• Recognize the diffusion equation and Darcy’s Law in axial coordinates
• Understand (qualitatively and quantitatively) how water is produced from an aquifer to the well for both confined and unconfined
aquifers
• Understand how the Theis equation was derived and be able to use the well function to calculate drawdown as a function of time and
distance
• Be able to use non-dimensional variables to characterize the behavior of flow from wells
• Be able to identify when the Thiem equation is appropriate and use it in quantitative calculations
• Be able to use Theis and Jacob-Cooper methods to determine aquifer transmissivity and storativity
• Be able to describe how draw-down curves are impacted by aquifer properties or recharge/barrier boundaries and quantitatively
estimate the size of an aquifer
• Understand how aquifer properties are determined in slug tests and be able to undertake quantitative analysis of Hvorslev and Cooper-
Bredehoeft-Papadopulos tests.
• Be able to describe what controls flow from wells starting at early time and extending to long time intervals
• Be able to describe quantitatively how drawdown behaves if nearby wells have overlapping cones of depression
• Understand the limits to what has been developed in this module
The End: Flow to Wells

Coming Up: Regional Groundwater Flow