Chapter 4

Imperfections in Solids

1
 Lesson Learning Outcome

At the end of this topic, you should be able to:

a) Describe both vacancy and self-interstitial crystalline defects.

b) Calculate the equilibrium number of vacancies in a material at some specified
temperature, given the relevant constants.
c) Name the two types of solid solutions, and provide a brief written definition
and/or schematic sketch of each.
d) Given the masses and atomic weights of two or more elements in a metal
alloy, calculate the weight percent and atom percent for each element.
e) Describe and make a drawing of each of edge, screw and mixed dislocations.
WHY STUDY Imperfections in Solids?

• The properties of some materials are

profoundly influenced by the presence of
imperfections.
• It is important to have knowledge about the
types of imperfections that exist and the roles
they play in affecting the behavior of
materials.
• i.e.70% Cu – 30% Zn- harder and stronger
than pure copper.
3
 Imperfections in Solids

• Solidification- result of casting of molten material

– 2 steps
• Nucleation- Nuclei form- the initial stage in a phase transformation,
which are capable of growing.
• Nuclei grow to form crystals – grain structure
• Start with a molten material – all liquid

nuclei crystals growing grain structure

liquid Adapted from Fig. 4.14(b), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

• Crystals grow until they meet each other

• 4
Thermal gradients define the shape of each grain.
 Growth of Crystals and Formation of Grain Structure

• Nucleus grow into crystals in different orientations.

• Crystal boundaries are formed when crystals join
together at complete solidification.
• Crystals in solidified metals are called grains.
• Grains are separated by grain boundaries.
• More the number of
nucleation sites
available, more
the number of
grains formed.

Nuclei growing into grains

Forming grain boundaries
4-8
 Polycrystalline Materials

Grain Boundaries
• regions between crystals
• transition from lattice of
one region to that of the
other
• slightly disordered
• low density in grain
boundaries
– high mobility
– high diffusivity
– high chemical reactivity
 Solidification
Grains can be - equiaxed (roughly same size in all directions)
- columnar (elongated grains)
~ 8 cm

heat
flow

Shell of
Columnar in equiaxed grains
area with less due to rapid
undercooling cooling (greater
T) near wall

Grain Refiner - added to make smaller, more uniform, equiaxed grains.

 Metallic Solid Solutions

• Alloys are used in most engineering applications.

• Alloy is an mixture of two or more metals and
nonmetals.
• Example:
 Cartridge brass is binary alloy of 70% Cu and 30% Zinc.
 Iconel is a nickel based superalloy with about 10 elements.

• Solid solution is a simple type of alloy in which

elements are dispersed in a single phase.

4-14
 Substitutional Solid Solution

• Solute atoms substitute for parent solvent atom in a

crystal lattice.
• The structure remains unchanged.
• Lattice might get slightly distorted due to change in
diameter of the atoms.
• Solute percentage in solvent
can vary from fraction of a
percentage to 100%

Solvent atoms
Figure 4.14
Solute atoms

4-15
 Substitutional Solid Solution (Cont..)

• The solubility of solids is greater if

 The diameter of atoms not differ by more than 15%
 Crystal structures are similar.
 No much difference in electronegativity (else compounds
will be formed).
 Have some valence.

• Examples:- Atomic Electron- Solid

System radius egativity Solibility
Difference difference
Cu-Zn 3.9% 0.1 38.3%
Cu-Pb 36.7% 0.2 0.17%
Cu-Ni 2.3% 0 100%
 Interstitial Solid Solution

• Solute atoms fit in between the voids (interstices) of

solvent atoms.
• Solvent atoms in this case should be much larger than
solute atoms.
• Example:- between 912 and 13940C, interstitial solid
solution of carbon in γ iron (FCC) is formed.
• A maximum of 2.8%
of carbon can dissolve
interstitially in iron.

Iron atoms r00.129nm

Carbon atoms r=0.075nm Figure 4.15a

 Crystalline Imperfections

• No crystal is perfect.
• Imperfections affect mechanical
properties, chemical properties and
electrical properties.
• Imperfections can be classified as
 Zero dimension point deffects.
 One dimension / line deffects (dislocations).
 Two dimension deffects.
 Three dimension deffects (cracks).
 Point Defects – Vacancy

• Vacancy is formed due to a missing atom.

• Vacancy is formed (one in 10000 atoms)
during crystallization or mobility of atoms.
• Energy of formation is 1 ev.
• Mobility of vacancy results in cluster of
vacancies.
• Also caused due
to plastic defor-
-mation, rapid
cooling or particle
bombardment.

Figure: Vacancies moving to form vacancy cluster

 Point Defects - Interstitially

• Atom in a crystal, sometimes, occupies

interstitial site.
• This does not occur naturally.
• Can be induced by irradiation.
• This defects caused structural distortion.

Figure 4.16b
 Point Defects
• Vacancies:
-vacant atomic sites in a structure.

Vacancy
distortion
of planes

• Self-Interstitials:
-"extra" atoms positioned between atomic sites.

self-
interstitial
distortion
of planes
 Line Defects – (Dislocations)

• Lattice distortions are centered around a

line.
• Formed during
 Solidification
 Permanent Deformation
 Vacancy condensation
• Different types of line defects are
 Edge dislocation
 Screw dislocation
 Mixed dislocation

4-22
 Edge Dislocation

• Created by insertion of extra half planes of atoms.

• Positive edge dislocation

• Negative edge dislocation

Burgers vector
• Burgers vector
Shows displa-
cement of
atoms (slip).

Figure 4.18
4-23 After M. Eisenstadt, “Introduction to Mechanical Properties of Materials,” Macmillan, 1971, p.117
After A.G. Guy , “Essentials of Materials Science,” McGraw-Hill, 1976, p.153
 Motion of Edge Dislocation
• Dislocation motion requires the successive bumping
of a half plane of atoms (from left to right here).
• Bonds across the slipping planes are broken and
remade in succession.

Atomic view of edge

dislocation motion from
left to right as a crystal
is sheared.

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

 Screw Dislocation

• Created due to shear stresses applied to regions

of a perfect crystal separated by cutting plane.
• Distortion of lattice in form of a spiral ramp.
• Burgers vector is parallel to dislocation line.

4-24 After M. Eisenstadt, “Introduction to Mechanical Properties of Materials,” Macmillan, 1971, p.118
 Imperfections in Solids
Screw Dislocation
Screw Dislocation

b
Dislocation
line
Burgers vector b (b)
(a)
Adapted from Fig. 4.4, Callister 7e.
 Mixed Dislocation

• Most crystal have components

of both edge and screw
dislocation.

Figure 4.21

• Dislocation, since have

irregular atomic arrangement
will appear as dark lines
when observed in electron
microscope. Figure 4.22
Dislocation structure of iron deformed
14% at –1950C
(After John Wolff et al., “Structure and Properties of Materials,” vol 3: “Mechanical Properties,” Wiley, 1965, p.65.
4-25 (After “Metals Handbook” vol. 8, 8th ed., American Society of Metals, 1973, p.164)
 Grain Boundaries

• Grain boundaries separate grains.

• Formed due to simultaneously growing crystals
meeting each other.
• Width = 2-5 atomic diameters.
• Some atoms in grain boundaries have higher energy.
• Restrict plastic flow and prevent dislocation
movement.
Figure 4.25
3D view of
grains

Grain Boundaries
In 1018 steel

(After A.G. Guy, “ Essentials of materials Science,” McGraw-Hill, 1976.)

 Planar Defects

• Grain boundaries, twins, low/high angle

boundaries, twists and stacking faults
• Free surface is also a defect : Bonded to
atoms on only one side and hence has
higher state of energy Highly
reactive
• Nanomaterials have small clusters of
atoms and hence are highly reactive.
 Twin Boundaries

• Twin: A region in which mirror image pf

structure exists across a boundary.
• Formed during plastic deformation and
recrystallization.
• Strengthens the metal.

Twin
Plane

Twin
 Planar Defects in Solids

• One case is a twin boundary (plane)

– Essentially a reflection of atom positions across the twin plane.

Adapted from Fig. 4.9, Callister 7e.

• Stacking faults
– For FCC metals an error in ABCABC packing sequence
– Ex: ABCABABC
 Other Planar Defects

• Small angle tilt boundary: Array of edge

dislocations tilts two regions of a crystal by < 100

• Stacking faults: Piling up faults during

recrystallization due to collapsing.
 Example: ABCABAACBABC FCC fault

• Volume defects: Cluster of point defects join to

form 3-D void.
 Observing Grain Boundaries - Metallography
• To observe grain boundaries, the metal sample must
be first mounted for easy handling
• Then the sample should be ground and polished with
different grades of abrasive
paper and abrasive solution.
• The surface is then etched
chemically.
• Tiny groves are produced
at grain boundaries.
• Groves do not intensely
reflect light. Hence
Figure 4.27
observed by optical
microscope.

4-28 After M. Eisenstadt, “Introduction to Mechanical Properties of Materials,” Macmillan, 1971, p.126
 Grain Size

• Affects the mechanical properties of the

material
• The smaller the grain size, more are the
grain boundaries.
• More grain boundaries means higher
resistance to slip (plastic deformation occurs
due to slip).
• More grains means more uniform the
mechanical properties are.

4-30
 Measuring Grain Size
• ASTM grain size number ‘n’ is a measure of grain size.
N = 2 n-1 N = Number of grains per
square inch of a polished
and etched specimen at 100 x.
N < 3 – Coarse grained
4 < n < 6 – Medium grained n = ASTM grain size number.
7 < n < 9 – Fine grained
NM = (M/100)2 = 2 n-1
N > 10 – ultrafine grained
(other magnification)

200 X 200 X

1018 cold rolled steel, n=10 1045 cold rolled steel, n=8
4-31
 Average Grain Diameter

• Average grain diameter more directly

represents grain size.
• Random line of known length is drawn on
photomicrograph.
• Number of grains intersected is counted.
• Ratio of number of grains intersected to length
of line, nL is determined.

d = C/nLM
C=1.5, and M is
3 inches 5 grains.
magnification
 Effect of Etching

Figure 4.28

Unetched Etched
Unetched Etched
Brass Brass
Steel Steel
200 X 200 X
200 X 200 X

4-32
 Summary

• Point, Line, and Area defects exist in solids.

• The number and type of defects can be varied

and controlled (e.g., T controls vacancy conc.)

• Defects affect material properties (e.g., grain

boundaries control crystal slip).
• Defects may be desirable or undesirable
(e.g., dislocations may be good or bad, depending
on whether plastic deformation is desirable or not.)