Chapter 4

Project Management
 Projects and Project Managers

Project – a [temporary] sequence of

unique, complex, and connected activities
having one goal or purpose and that must
be completed by specific time, within
budget, and according to specification.

Project manager - the person

responsible for supervising a systems
project from initiation to conclusion
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 Project Management
and Process Management
Project management – the process of
scoping, planning, staffing, organizing,
directing, and controlling the development
of an acceptable system at a minimum
cost within a specified time frame.

Process management – the activity of

documenting, managing, and continually
improving the process of systems
development.
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 Measures of Project Success
• The resulting information system is
acceptable to the customer.
• The system was delivered “on time.”
• The system was delivered “within
budget.”
• The system development process had a
minimal impact on ongoing business
operations.
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 Causes of Project Failure
• Failure to establish upper-management
commitment to the project
• Lack of organization’s commitment to the
methodology
• Taking shortcuts through or around the
methodology
• Poor expectations management
• Feature creep– uncontrolled addition of technical
features to a system.
• Scope creep – unexpected and gradual growth of
4-5
requirements during an information systems project.
 Causes of Project Failure
(cont.)
• Premature commitment to a fixed budget
and schedule
• Poor estimating techniques
• Overoptimism
• The mythical man-month (Brooks, 1975)
• Inadequate people management skills
• Failure to adapt to business change
• Insufficient resources
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• Failure to “manage to the plan”
 Project Manager Competencies
• Business awareness • Anticipation of impact
• Business partner • Resourceful use of
orientation influence
• Commitment to quality • Motivating others
• Initiative • Communication skills
• Information gathering • Developing others
• Analytical thinking • Monitoring and controlling
• Conceptual thinking • Self-confidence
• Interpersonal awareness • Stress management
• Organizational • Concern for credibility
awareness • Flexibility
(Adapted from Wysocki, Beck, and Crane, Effective Project Management:
4-7 How to Plan, Manage, and Deliver Projects on Time and within Budget.)
 Project Management Functions
• Scoping – setting the boundaries of the
project
• Planning – identifying the tasks required to
complete the project
• Estimating – identifying the resources
required to complete the project
• Scheduling – developing the plan to
complete the project
• Organizing – making sure members
understand their roles and responsibilities
• Directing – coordinating the project
• Controlling – monitoring progress
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• Closing – assessing success and failure
 Project Management Tools
& Techniques

PERT chart – a graphical network model

used to depict the interdependencies
between a project’s tasks.

Gantt chart – a bar chart used to depict

project tasks against a calendar.

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Gantt Chart Fundamentals

• Separate tasks are listed in vertical rows

• Time spans horizontally along the top
• Each task is represented by a bar along
the time horizon
 How to Create a Gantt Chart
using Microsoft Project

List any
Enter Task
resources to
Name Adjust start
Choose task be used
duration and end times
Follow-Along Exercise

ITM Security Systems just got a bid for installing a

security system on a new government building.
Schedule the project using a Gantt chart.
Include the following steps:
• Test the system (0.5 days; QA engineer)
• Install the system (4 days; install crew)
• Order and await supplies (9 days; warehouse)
• Evaluate facility’s security needs, including travel
to/from site (4 days; inspector)
• Schedule installation time (1 day; secretary)
• Installation crew travel (2 days; install crew)
 More Complex Gantt Chart

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Work Breakdown Structure

• WBS is a tool for expressing project scope

graphically and textually
• It represents the project in terms of a
hierarchy (components/sub-components)
• like a bill of materials
• may be any number of levels of hierarchy
How to Create a WBS?

• Proceed top-down
• No specific sequence of work
implied
• No need to be symmetrical
• How deep to “break down”?
• Rule: break down until you achieve the
estimation accuracy you desire
Numbering the Boxes
• Each box in the WBS should have a
unique identifier.
Project

1.1 1.2

1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.2.6 1.2.7 1.2.8 1.2.9 1.2.10

1.2.7.1
 Example: Reroof a House

1.0 Reroof
House

1.1 Materials 1.2 Materials 1.3 Roof

Estimation Gathering Application

1.1.1 Measure 1.1.2 Calculate 1.2.1 Purchase 1.2.2 Take 1.3.1 Roof 1.3.2 Roof
Roof Materials Materials Delivery Removal Application

1.3.1.1 Remove 1.3.1.2 Remove

Shingles Nails 1.3.2.1 Apply 1.3.2.2 Cut 1.3.2.3 Apply
Shingles Caps Caps
 Exercise

• Create a WBS for a bicycle

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 Project Management Life Cycle

4-19
 Joint Project Planning Strategy

Joint project planning (JPP) – a

strategy in which all stakeholders attend
an intensive workshop aimed at reaching
consensus on project decisions.

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 Activity 1 – Negotiate Scope
Scope – the boundaries of a project – the
areas of a business that a project may (or
may not) address. Includes answers to five
basic questions:
• Product
• Quality
• Time
• Cost
• Resources

Statement of work – a narrative description

of the work to be performed as part of a
project. Common synonyms include scope
statement, project definition, project overview,
and document of understanding.
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 Statement of Work
I. Purpose
II. Background
A. Problem, opportunity, or directive statement
B. History leading to project request
C. Project goal and objectives Notice the use of
D. Product description information system
III. Scope building blocks
A. Stakeholders
B. Data
C. Processes
D. Locations
IV. Project Approach
A. Route
B. Deliverables
V. Managerial Approach
A. Team building considerations
B. Manager and experience
4-22 C. Training requirements
(continued)
 Statement of Work (concluded)
V. Managerial Approach (continued)
D. Meeting schedules
E. Reporting methods and frequency
F. Conflict management
G. Scope management
VI. Constraints
A. Start date
B. Deadlines
C. Budget
D. Technology
VII. Ballpark Estimates
A. Schedule
B. Budget
VIII. Conditions of Satisfaction
A. Success criteria
B. Assumptions
C. Risks
IX. Appendices
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 Activity 2 – Identify Tasks
Work breakdown
structure (WBS) – a
graphical tool used to
depict the hierarchical
decomposition of the
project into phases,
activities, and tasks.

Milestone – an event
signifying the
completion of a major
project deliverable.
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 Activity 3 – Estimate Task
Durations
• Elapsed time takes into consideration:
• Efficiency - no worker performs at 100%
efficiency
• Coffee breaks, lunch, e-mail, etc.
• Estimate of 75% is common
• Interruptions
• Phone calls, visitors, etc.
• 10-50%

4-25
 Activity 3 – Estimate Task
Durations
1. Estimate the minimum amount of time it would take to
perform the task – the optimistic duration (OD).
2. Estimate the maximum amount of time it would take
to perform the task – the pessimistic duration (PD).
3. Estimate the expected duration (ED) that will be
needed to perform the task.
4. Calculate a weighted average of the most likely
duration (D) as follows:

D = (1 x OD) + (4 x ED) + (1 x PD)

6
OD ED PD

3.33 days = (1 x 2 days) + (4 x 3 days) + (1 x 6 days)

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6
 Activity 4 – Specify Intertask
Dependencies
• Finish-to-start (FS)—The finish of one
task triggers the start of another task.
• Start-to-start (SS)—The start of one task
triggers the start of another task.
• Finish-to-finish (FF)—Two tasks must
finish at the same time.
• Start-to-finish (SF)—The start of one task
signifies the finish of another task.
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 Entering Intertask
Dependencies

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 Scheduling Strategies

Forward scheduling – a project

scheduling approach that establishes a
project start date and then schedules
forward from that date.

Reverse scheduling – a project

scheduling strategy that establishes a
project deadline and then schedules
backward from that date.
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 A Project Schedule in Calendar
View

4-30
 Activity 5 – Assign Resources
• People – includes all system owners, users,
analysts, designers, builders, external agents, and
clerical help involved in the project in any way.
• Services – includes services such as a quality
review that may be charged on a per use basis.
• Facilities and equipment – includes all rooms
and technology that will be needed to complete the
project.
• Supplies and materials – everything from pencils,
paper, notebooks to toner cartridges, and so on.
• Money – includes a translation of all of the above
4-31 into budgeted dollars!
 Defining Project Resources

4-32
 Assigning Project Resources

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 Assigning People to Tasks

• Recruit talented, highly motivated people

• Select the best task for each person
• Promote team harmony
• Plan for the future
• Keep the team size small

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 Resource Leveling

Resource leveling – a strategy for

correcting resource over-allocations.

Two techniques for resource leveling:

• task delaying
• task splitting

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 Task Splitting and Task
Delaying
• Critical path – the sequence of dependent
tasks that determines the earliest possible
completion date of the project.
• Tasks on the critical path cannot be delayed without
delaying the entire project. Critical tasks can only be
split.

• Slack time – the amount of delay that can be

tolerated between the starting time and
completion time of a task without causing a
delay in the completion date of the entire
project.
• Tasks that have slack time can be delayed to
4-36 achieve resource leveling
 Activity 6 – Direct the Team
Effort
• Supervision resources
• The Deadline: A Novel
about Project
Management
• The People Side of
Systems
• The One Minute Manager
• The One Minute Manager
Meets the Monkey

• Stages of Team
Maturity
(see figure to the right)
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 10 Hints for Project Leadership
1. Be Consistent.
2. Provide Support.
3. Don’t Make Promises You Can’t Keep.
4. Praise in Public; Criticize in Private.
5. Be Aware of Morale Danger Points.
6. Set Realistic Deadlines.
7. Set Perceivable Targets.
8. Explain and Show, Rather Than Do.
9. Don’t Rely on Just Status Reports.
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10. Encourage a Good Team Spirit.
 Activity 7 – Monitor and
Control Progress

• Progress reporting
• Change management
• Expectations management
• Schedule adjustments—critical path
analysis (CPA)

4-39
 Sample Outline for Progress
Report
I. Cover Page
A. Project name or identification
B. Project manager
C. Date or report
II. Summary of progress
A. Schedule analysis
B. Budget analysis
C. Scope analysis
(changes that may have an impact on future progress)
D. Process analysis
(problems encountered with strategy or methodology)
E. Gantt progress chart(s)
III. Activity analysis
A. Tasks completed since last report
B. Current tasks and deliverables
C. Short term future tasks and deliverables
4-40 (continued)
 Sample Outline for a Progress
Report (concluded)
IV. Previous problems and issues
A. Action item and status
B. New or revised action items
1. Recommendation
2. Assignment of responsibility
3. Deadline
V. New problems and issues
A. Problems
(actual or anticipated)
B. Issues
(actual or anticipated)
C. Possible solutions
1. Recommendation
2. Assignment of responsibility
3. Deadline
VI. Attachments
4-41 (include relevant printouts from project management software)
 Progress Reporting on a Gantt
Chart

4-42
 Change Management
Change management – a formal strategy in which a
process is established to facilitate changes that occur
during a project.

Changes can be the result of various events and factors including:

• An omission in defining initial scope
• A misunderstanding of the initial scope
• An external event such as government regulations that create
new requirements
• Organizational changes
• Availability of better technology
• Shifts in planned technology that force changes to the business
organization, culture, and/or processes
• Management’s desire to have the system do more
4-43 • Reduced funding for project or imposition of an earlier deadline.
 Expectations Management
Expectations management matrix – a tool
used to understand the dynamics and impact
of changing the parameters of a project.
The most important The second most important

The least
important

Can have only

one X in each
row and each
column
4-44
 Lunar Project Expectations
Management

4-45
 Typical, Initial Expectations
for a Project

4-46
 Adjusting Expectations

4-47
 Changing Priorities

4-48
 Schedule Adjustments -
Critical Path Analysis
1. Using intertask dependencies, determine every
possible path through the project.
2. For each path, sum the durations of all tasks in
the path.
3. The path with the longest total duration is the
critical path.
• The critical path is the sequence of tasks with the
largest sum of most likely durations. The critical
path determines the earliest completion date of
the project.
• The slack time for any non-critical task is the
amount of delay that can be tolerated between
starting and completion time of a task without
causing a delay in the entire project.
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 Critical Path Analysis

4-50
 Activity 8 – Assess Project
Results and Experiences

• Did the final product meet or exceed user

expectations?
• Why or why not?
• Did the project come in on schedule?
• Why or why not?
• Did the project come in under budget?
• Why or why not?
4-51