Unit 5

Determinants and
Matrices
5.1 Definition of Determinants
(A) A square array of real (or complex) numbers
arranged in n rows and n columns is called a
determinant of the nth order .
row :
a11 a12 a13 ... a1 j ... a1n 1st
a21 a22 a23 ... a2 j ... a2 n 2nd

a31 a32 a33 ... a3 j ... a3n 3rd

. . . ... . . . .

. . . ... . . . .
ai1 ai 2 ai 2 ... aij ... ain ith
. . . . . .
... ...
. . . . . .
an1 an 2 an 3 ... anj ... ann nth

column : 1st 2nd 3rd jth nth

5.1 Definition of Determinants
The number in the determinant is called an el
ement or entry of the determinant. There are
n2 elements in a determinant of the nth order.
Usually, we use small letters to denote eleme
nts. The symbol aij denotes the element locat
ed in the ith row, the jth column.
e.g. a34 located in 3th row
4th column
5.1 Definition of Determinants
(B) The value of a determinant of order 2 is
defined by
a11 a12
 a11 a22  a12 a21.......... .......... ..(1)
a21 a22

The expression a11a22 - a12a21 on the right

hand side of (1) is called the expansion of
the second order determinant.
5.1 Definition of Determinants
(C) The value of a determinant of order 3 is
defined by

…..
(2)
The expression on the right hand side of
(2) is called the expansion of the third
order determinant.
5.2 Properties of Determinants
(1) The value of a determinant remains
unchanged if all the rows and columns are
correspondingly interchanged.
a b c a d g
d e f b e h
g h i c f i
5.2 Properties of Determinants
(2) The determinant changes sign only but its
absolute value remains unchanged if any two
rows (or any two columns) are interchanged.
a b c a b c
d e f g h i
g h i d e f
a b c a c b
or d e f  d f e
g h i g i h
5.2 Properties of Determinants
(3) If the elements of a row (resp. a column)
are proportional to those of another row (resp
. another column), then the value of the deter
minant is zero.
a b c a d g
i.e. If   or   ,
d e f b e h
a b c
then d e f 0
g h i
5.2 Properties of Determinants
(4) If the elements of a row (resp. a column)
are identical to those of another row (resp. an
other column), then the value of the determin
ant is zero.

a b c a b b
i.e. d e f  0, d e e  0.
d e f g h h
5.2 Properties of Determinants
(5) If the elements of any row (resp. a colum
n) of a determinant are multiplied by the sam
e factor, the resulting determinant is equal to t
he product of that factor and the original dete
rminant.
pa pb pc a b c a pb c
i.e. d e f  pd e f d pe f
g h i g h i g ph i
5.2 Properties of Determinants
(5 ext) If the elements of a row (resp. a colum
n) are zero, the value of the determinant is zero
.

a b c a 0 c
i.e. d e f 0 d 0 f
0 0 0 g 0 i
5.2 Properties of Determinants
(6) If the elements of any row (resp. a column) are ad
ded or subtracted by equimultiples of the correspondi
ng elements of another row (resp. another column), th
e value of the determinant is altered.
5.2 Properties of Determinants
(6) If the elements of any row (resp. a column) are ad
ded or subtracted by equimultiples of the correspondi
ng elements of another row (resp. another column), th
e value of the determinant is altered.
5.2 Properties of Determinants
(7) If the elements of a row (resp. a column)
of a determinant consists of an algebraic sum
of the terms, the determinant is equal to the s
um of two other determinants in each of whic
h the elements consist of single term.

x3
5.2 Properties of Determinants
(7) If the elements of a row (resp. a column)
of a determinant consists of an algebraic sum
of the terms, the determinant is equal to the s
um of two other determinants in each of whic
h the elements consist of single term.
P.133 Ex.5A
5.3 Minors and Cofactors
Let aij be an element of the determinant A loc
ated in the ith row, the jth column. The minor
of aij , is denoted by ij, is defined as the deter
minant formed by deleting the ith row and jth
column of A.
a b c
If A  d e f , then the minor of
g h i
a c
 22 
g i
5.3 Minors and Cofactors
Let A be a determinant, aij be an element of A
in the ith row, the jth column and ij be the m
inor of aij. The cofactor of aij is defined by (-
1)i+j ij and is usually denoted by Aij.
1 2 3
Let A  4 5 6
7 8 9
1 2 23 1 2
 23  , A23  (1)
7 8 7 8
5.3 Minors and Cofactors

From the definition ; we can see that

 ij if i  j is even
Aij  
  ij if i  j is odd
5.3 Minors and Cofactors
The sum of the products of the elements of any row (or any
column) and their own cofactors is equal to the value of the
determinant.
Let A be a determinant of order n, and Aij be the cofactor of
aij ( 1  i, j  n ), then
5.3 Minors and Cofactors
The sum of the products of the elements of any row (or any
column) and their own cofactors is equal to the value of the
determinant.
Let A be a determinant of order n, and Aij be the cofactor of
aij ( 1  i, j  n ), then

5 6 4 6 4 5
A  1 3 2
1 3 2 9 8 7 8 7 9
A 4 5 6 or
7 9 8
5 6 3 2 3 2
A  1 4 7
9 8 9 8 5 6
P.145 Ex.5B
5.4 Factorization of Determinants
To factorize a given determinant, the following
two methods are usually employed :
(1) Apply properties of a determinant to transform
the entries in a row (or a column) until there is a
common factor among the entries.

(2) If the determinant is a polynomial in x and

if the determinant vanishes when x = a, then
(x - a) is a factor.
5.4 Factorization of Determinants
1 1 1
e.g . Factorize   a b c
a2 b2 c2
5.4 Factorization of Determinants
Method II
 remains unchanged if a, b, c are respectively
replaced by b, c, a.Thus it is a cyclic symmetric
about a, b, c and is homogeneous.
If we put a = b or b = c or c = a,  = 0.
Hence  has factors a – b, b – c and c – a.
As  is of degree 3, we let   k(a-b)(b-c)(c-a).
By comparing coefficients of bc2, we get k = 1.
   (a-b)(b-c)(c-a)
P.149 Ex.5C
5.5 Definition and Basic Operation of Matrices
Matrix : A rectangular array of real (or complex)
numbers arranged in m rows and n column is called
a m x n matrix. A m x n matrix is usually
represented in the form :

(aij ) mn or [aij ]mn

5.5 Definition and Basic Operation of Matrices

The number aij in the ith row and the jth column of
a matrix is called an element or entry. Hence a
m x n matrix contains mn elements. We call m x n t
he order of a matrix, and we usually use capital lett
ers to denote matrices.
Matrix is a mathematical tool, it is not a number.
5.5 Definition and Basic Operation of Matrices
Equality of matrices : Two matrices
A = (aij) and B = (bij) are equal if and
only if they are of the same orders an
d aij = bij, for all i = 1, 2 , .., m; j=
1, 2,..., n.
5.5 Definition and Basic Operation of Matrices
Sum of Matrices : The sum of two m x n matrices A
=(aij) and B =(bij) is the m x n matrix C = (cij), wher
e cij = aij + bij, for all i = 1, 2, …., m; j=1
, 2, …, n.
1 2  5 6
e.g. A   , B   
3 4 7 8
6 8
 C   
10 12 
5.5 Definition and Basic Operation of Matrices
Scalar Multiplication : The scalar multiplication of a
m x n matrix A = (aij) by a scalar  (here  is a real
or a complex number) is the m x n matrix C =(cij), w
here
cij =  aij,
for every i = 1, 2, …, m; j = 1, 2,…, n.
We usually write C = A. This defines scalar multipl
ication of a matrix A by a scalar .
1 2
e.g . A   ,
3 4
3 6 
3 A   
 9 12 
5.5 Definition and Basic Operation of Matrices

Negative Matrix : Let A be any matrix,

the symbol –A denotes (-1)A.
1 2
e.g . A   ,
3 4
 1  2
 A   
  3  4
5.5 Definition and Basic Operation of Matrices
Difference of Matrices : Let A, B be
two matrices of the same order. The
difference A - B is defined by
A - B = A + (-1)B.
1 2  5 6
e.g . A   , B   
3 4 7 8
  4  4
 A  B   
  4  4
5.5 Definition and Basic Operation of Matrices
For any three matrices A, B, C of the same order
and any scalars , , we have
(1) Addition is associative
(A + B) + C = A + (B +C)
(2) Addition is commutative
A+B=B+A
(3) Scalar multiplication is distributive over
addition and subtraction.
 ( A  B )  A  B
(4) (   ) A  A  A
(5) ( ) A   ( A)   (A)
5.5 Definition and Basic Operation of Matrices
Multiplication of Matrices : Let A (aik) be a m x n
matrix and B = (bkj) be a n x p matrix, the product
AB is the m x p matrix C = (cij), where
n
cij  ai1b1 j  ai 2b2 j  ...  ain bnj   aik bkj
k 1

for all i = 1, 2,…., m; j = 1, 2, …, p.

The product AB defines multiplication of matrices.

5.5 Definition and Basic Operation of Matrices
Multiplication of Matrices
5.5 Definition and Basic Operation of Matrices
Multiplication of Matrices

2
 1  1  1  1 1  1
e.g .      
 0 2   0 2  0 2 
11  (1)  0 1 (1)  (1)  2 
  
 0 1  2  0 0  (1)  2  2 
 1  3
  
0 4 
5.5 Definition and Basic Operation of Matrices
Multiplication of Matrices
 1 0  2
 1 2 3  
A   , B 0 2 1 
3 2 1  1 3 2 
 

11  2  0  3  (1) 1 0  2  2  3  3 1 (2)  2 1  3  2 

AB   
 3 1  2  0  1 (1) 3  0  2  2  1 3 3  (2)  2  1  1 2 
  2 13 6 
  
 2 7  2
5.5 Definition and Basic Operation of Matrices
Multiplication of Matrices
0 0  0 0
A   , B   
0 1 1 0
 0  0  0 1 0  0  0  0   0 0 
AB      
 0  0  1 1 0  0  1 0   1 0 
 0  0  0  0 0  0  0 1  0 0 
BA      
 1 0  0  0 1 0  0  1   0 0 
Multiplication of matrices is non-
commutative.
5.5 Definition and Basic Operation of Matrices
Multiplicative Properties of Matrices :
(1) Let A, B, C be three matrices of order m x
n, n x p, p x q respectively, then
(AB)C = A(BC)
(2) Let A, B be two matrices of order m x n and C,
D be matrices of order n x p, q x m
respectively,
(i ) ( Athen
 B )C  AC  BC
(ii ) D( A  B )  DA  DB
(3) Let A, B be two matrices of order m x n and
n x p respectively. For any scalar , we have
(AB) = (A)B = A(B).
5.6 Special Types of Matrices
(1) The square Matrix : A n x n matrix is called a s
quare matrix of order n.
(2) The identity Matrix : A square matrix A = (aij)
of order n is called an identity matrix or a unit m
atrix of order n if and only if
1 if i  j
aij  
0 if i  j
and is denoted by In.
1 0 0
 
e.g. I 3   0 1 0 
0 0 1
 
5.6 Special Types of Matrices
(3) The scalar Matrix : A square matrix (bij) is call
ed a scalar matrix if and only if
k if i  j
bij  
0 if i  j
where k is a fixed real (or complex) number.
 2 0 0 1 0 0
   
e.g .  0 2 0   2 0 1 0   2 I 3
 0 0 2  0 0 1
   
5.6 Special Types of Matrices
(4) The Diagonal Matrix : A square matrix (dij)
is called a diagonal matrix if and only if dij = 0
when i = j.

 2 0 0 0 0 0
   
e.g .  0  2 0 , 0  2 0
 0 0 3 0 0 0
   
5.6 Special Types of Matrices
(5) The Zero/ Null of Matrix : A matrix (not
necessarily square) is called a zero matrix or a
null matrix if and only if all its elements are
zero. A zero matrix of order m x n is usually
denoted by 0mxn.  0 0 0
 
 0 0 0
e.g 
0 0 0
 
 0 0 0
 
(i) For any matrix A and a zero matrix, both
are of the same order, A + 0 = 0 + A = A
(ii) For any square matrix A and a square zero
matrix 0, both are of the same order, A x 0
=0xA=0
5.6 Special Types of Matrices
(6) The Power of a Square Matrix : For any
square matrix A and any positive integer n, the
symbol An denotes A x A x A x A x …..

n factors
e.g. (A + B)2 = (A + B)(A + B)
= A2 + AB + BA + B2
= A2 + 2AB + B2
because AB = BA
5.6 Special Types of Matrices
(7) The Idempotent Matrix : A square matrix is
called idempotent if and only if A2 = A.
2
 1  1  1  1 1  1
e.g .      
 0 0   0 0  0 0 
11  (1)  0 1 (1)  (1)  0 
  
 0 1  0  0 0  (1)  0  0 
 1  1
  
0 0 
n
 1  1  1  1
     
0 0  0 0 
5.6 Special Types of Matrices
(8) The transpose of Matrix : The transpose of a
m x n matrix A =(aij), denoted by AT or At or A’, is
the n x m matrix AT = (bij), where bij = aji.

T 1 4
 1 2 3  
e.g .     2 5
 4 5 6  3 6
 
5.6 Special Types of Matrices
(8 ext.) Properties of the transpose of matrix :
(1)Let A, B be two matrices of same order,
then ( A  B)T  AT  B T .
(2) For any scalar  and any matrix A,
(A)T  AT
(3) For any matrix A, ( AT )T  A
(4) For any square matrix A and any positive
integer n, ( An )T  ( AT ) n
(5) Let A, B be two matrices of order m  n
and n  p respectively, then ( AB)T  BT AT
5.6 Special Types of Matrices
(9) The Symmetric Matrix : A square matrix A is
said to be symmetric if and only if AT = A.

 1 3  4
 
e.g .  3 0 5 
 4 5 2 
 
5.6 Special Types of Matrices
(10) The skew-symmetric Matrix : A square
matrix a is said to be skew-symmetric if and
only if AT = - A
T
 0 1 2   0 1  2
   
e.g .   1 0  3    1 0 3 
 2 3 0  2 3 0 
   
 0 1 2 
 
   1 0  3 
 2 3 0 
 
5.6 Special Types of Matrices
(11) The Row Vector and the Column Vector :
A 1 x n matrix is called a row vector.
e.g . (1 2 3)
A m x 1 matrix is called column vector.
1 
 
e.g .  2 
3
 
P.156 Ex.5D
5.7 Multiplicative Inverse of a Square Matrix

The determinant of A, denoted by det A or |A|, is de

fined as the determinant :
5.7 Multiplicative Inverse of a Square Matrix
General properties :
(1)For any square matrix a of order n and any
scalar , det (A) = n det A
A   A
n

(2) For any two square matrices A and B of th

e same order, det (AB) = det A x det B
AB  A B
(3) For any square matrix A, det (AT) = det A
AT  A
5.7 Multiplicative Inverse of a Square Matrix
The Cofactor matrix : Let A = (aij)nxn be a square
matrix. The cofactor matrix of A, denoted by cof
A, is defined by cof A = (Aij)nxn, where Aij is the c
ofactor of aij, for every i, j = 1, 2,…,n.
 1 2 3
 
e.g . A   4 5 6 ,
7 8 1
 
 5 6 4 6 4 5 
  
 8 1 7 1 7 8 
 2 3    43 38  3 
1 3 1 2  
cof A        22  20 6 
 8 1 7 1 7 8  
 3 6  3
 2 3 1 3 1 2   
  
 5 6 4 6 4 5 
5.7 Multiplicative Inverse of a Square Matrix
The Adjoint Matrix : Let A be a square matrix. T
he transpose of the cofactor matrix of A, i.e. (cof
A)T, is called the adjoint matrix of A, denoted by
adj A.
 1 2 3
 
e.g . A   4 5 6 ,
7 8 9
 
  43 38  3
 
cof A   22  20 6 
 3 6  3 

  43 22  3
 
adj A   38  20 6 
 3 6  3 

5.7 Multiplicative Inverse of a Square Matrix
The Non-singular/Invertible Matrix : A square
matrix A of order n is said to be non-singular or
invertible if and only if there exists a square
matrix B such that
AB = BA = In,
where In is an identity matrix of order n, and the
matrix B is called the multiplicative inverse or
simple inverse of A, which is denoted by A-1,
i.e. AA-1 = A-1A = In.
The inverse of a non-singular matrix is unique.
5.7 Multiplicative Inverse of a Square Matrix

For any square matrix of order n,

A(adj A) = (adj A)A = (det A)In,
where In is an identity matrix of order n.
(adj A)A = (det A)AA-1

(adj A) 1
A
(det A)
5.7 Multiplicative Inverse of a Square Matrix

Let A be a square matrix.

If det A = 0, then A is non-singular and

1 1
A  adj A
det A
A square matrix A is non-singular if and only
if det A  0.
5.7 Multiplicative Inverse of a Square Matrix

A square matrix A is said to be singular

or not invertible if and only if the
inverse, A-1, of A does not exist.

A square matrix A is singular if and onl

y if det A = 0.
5.8 Properties of Inverses
If A and B are non-singular matrices of the same
order, and any scalar  we have :
(1) If AC1 = AC2 or C1A = C2A, then C1= C2
(2) A-1 is non-singular and (A-1)-1 = A

(3) AB is non-singular and (AB)-1 = B-1A-1

(4) For any positive integer n, An is non-singular,
and (An)-1 = (A-1)n.
5.8 Properties of Inverses
If A and B are non-singular matrices of the same
order, and any scalar  we have :
(5) For any  = 0, A is non-singular, and
1 1
(A)-1 =  A
(6) AT is non-singular and (AT)-1 = (A-1)T.

(7) If AC = 0, then C = 0.
P.164 Ex.5E
5.9 Some Illustrative Examples
5.9 Some Illustrative Examples
P.176 Ex.5F
5.10 Linear Transformations on the Rectangular Cartesian Plane
 x
If we regard the column matrix   as the point ( x, y ),
 y
then points like matrices, can be added,
subtracted and also multiplied by a real number.

A point represented by a column matrix is called the matrix

1 
representation of a point. e.g. the point (1,2) is represented by  
 2
5.10 Linear Transformations on the Rectangular Cartesian Plane

Let E  {( x, y ) : x, y  R} be the set of all

points in the rectangular Cartesian plane.
The function  : E  E is called a linear
transforamtion on E if and only if it satisfies
the condition :
 (au  bv)  a (u )  b (v),
for all u, v  E and a, b  R.
A linear transformation : E  E must satisfy
the following condition :  ((0, 0))  (0, 0)
5.10 Linear Transformations on the Rectangular Cartesian Plane

Let E be the rectangular Cartesian plane and

 ,  : E  E be two linear transformation whose
matrix representation are respectively
2 0   3  2
A    and B   . For any point
 1  1 0 1 
 x 
( x, y )  E , find (   )   .
 y 
5.10 Linear Transformations on the Rectangular Cartesian Plane
Let E be the rectangular Cartesian plane and  , : E  E be
two linear transformation whose matrix representation are respectively
2 0   3  2  x 
A    and B   . For any point ( x, y )  E , find (   )   .
 1  1 0 1   y 

 x    x   2 0  3  2  x 
(   )              
 y    y   1  1 0 1  y 
  x   6  4  x 
 A B     
  y   3  3  y 
 x  6x  4 y 
 AB    
 y  3x  3 y 
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rect
angular Cartesian Plane
(I) Enlargement
The linear transformation  : E  E whose
 0 
matrix representation is  , where 
0 
is a real constant, is called an enlargement.
Under this transforamtion, every point ( x, y )
is transformed to ( x' , y ' ) defined by
 x'    0  x   x 
        .
 y '   0   y   y 
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rect
angular Cartesian Plane

(I) Enlargement
 3'   4 0  3   12 
e.g .         
 5'   0 4  5   20 
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rect
angular Cartesian Plane
(II) Rotation
The linear transformation  : E  E
 cos  sin  
represented by the matrix A   
 sin  cos 
is called a rotation. The matrix A is called the
matrix of rotation and  is the angle of rotation
(in anticlockwise direction).
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rect
angular Cartesian Plane
(II) Rotation
e.g . If the point P(4,2) is rotated clockwise about the
orgin through an angle 60o , find its final position.
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rect
angular Cartesian Plane
(III) Shear
The linear transformation  : E  E
1  
represented by the matrix A   ,
0 1 
where  is a real constant, is called a
shear parallel to the x  axis.
 x'   1   x   x  y 
        
 y '   0 1  y   y 
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rect
angular Cartesian Plane
(III) Shear
e.g . Given a rectangle whose vertices are
O(0,0), A(3,0), B (3,2) and C (0,2). Find the images
of these four vertices under the shear represented
1 2
by  . What is the effect of this shear on the
0 1
rectangle?
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rect
angular Cartesian Plane
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rect
angular Cartesian Plane
(III) Shear
The linear transformation  : E  E
 1 0
represente d by the matrix B   ,
  1
where  is a real constant, is called a
shear parallel to the y  axis.
 x'   1 0  x   x 
        
 y '    1  y   x  y 
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rect
angular Cartesian Plane
(IV) Reflection
A linear transformation  : E  E is called a
reflection about the line l passing through
the origin if and only if the image P ' of every
point P on the xy  plane and the point P
itself are symmetric about the line l.
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rect
angular Cartesian Plane
(IV) Reflection

: y = x tan

 x'   cos 2 sin 2  x   x cos 2  y sin 2 

        
 y '   sin 2  cos 2  y   x sin 2  y cos 2 
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rect
angular Cartesian Plane
(IV) Reflection
 x'   cos 2 sin 2  x   x cos 2  y sin 2 
        
 y '   sin 2  cos 2  y   x sin 2  y cos 2 
The matrix representing the reflection about
1 0
(i ) the x  axis is  
0 - 1
 -1 0
(ii ) the y  axis is  
0 1
0 1
(iii ) the line y  x is  .
1 0
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rect
angular Cartesian Plane
(V) Translation
a
Let   be a fixed point, represented by a
b
column matrix, in E. The transformation
( NOT LINEAR) f : E  E defined by
 x   x   a  x
f          , for every point  
 y   y  b   y
in E , is called a translation.
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rect
angular Cartesian Plane
(V) Translatio n

 3'   3   1   4 
e.g.           
 5'   5   4   9 
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rectangular Cartesian Plane
Types of transformation Final position

enlargement  x'    0  x   x 
        
 y '   0   y   y 
rotation  x'   cos   sin   x   x cos   y sin  
        
 y '   sin  cos   y   x sin   y cos  
shear parallel to x-axis  x'   1   x   x  y 
        
y
   ' 0 1   y y 
shear parallel to y-axis  x'   1 0  x   x 
        
 y '    1  y   x  y 
reflection about x-axis  x'   1 0  x   x 
        
y '
   0  1  y    y 
reflection about y-axis  x'    1 0  x    x 
        
y '
   0 1  y   y 
reflection about y = x  x'   0 1  x   y 
        
 y '   1 0  y   x 
translation  x'   x   a   x  a 
          
 y'   y   b   y  b 
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rect
angular Cartesian Plane
(VI) Composition of Transforamtion
More complicated transformations
may be formed by the composition of
above transformations. It is known that
matrix multiplication represents composite
linear transformation.
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rect
angular Cartesian Plane
(VI) Composition of Transforamtion
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rect
angular Cartesian Plane
(VI) Composition of Transforamtion
5.11 Some special Linear Transformations on the Rect
angular Cartesian Plane
(VI) Composition of Transforamtion
P.195 Ex.5G