Shaira Dale Fernandez

Fhea Paran
Kirk Joseph Literatus
I. INTRODUCTION

 Often a materials problem is really one of selecting the material that has
the right combination of characteristics for a specific application.
 Materials selection decisions may also be influenced by the ease with
which metal alloys may be formed or manufactured into useful
components.
 In addition, further property alterations may be induced by the
employment of appropriate heat treatments.
II. Types of Metal Alloys
FERROUS ALLOYS

 Their widespread use is accounted for by three factors:

 (1) iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the
earth’s crust;
 (2) metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively
economical extraction, refining, alloying, and fabrication techniques;
 (3) ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that they may be tailored
to have a wide range of mechanical and physical properties.
 The principal disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is their susceptibility
to corrosion.
Types of ferrous alloys
Steels

 iron–carbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentrations of other

alloying elements;
 The mechanical properties are sensitive to the content of carbon, which
is normally less than 1.0 wt%.
 Some of the more common steels are classified according to carbon
concentration—namely,into low-,medium-,and highcarbon types.
Types of steels
Low-Carbon Steels

 Of all the different steels, those produced in the greatest quantities fall
within the low-carbon classification
 These generally contain less than about 0.25 wt% C and are
unresponsive to heat treatments intended to form martensite;
strengthening is accomplished by cold work.
 As a consequence, these alloys are relatively soft and weak but have
outstanding ductility and toughness; in addition, they are machinable,
weldable, and, of all steels, are the least expensive to produce
It present the compositions
and mechanical properties of
several plain low-carbon steels.
 They typically have a yield
strength of 275 MPa (40,000
psi),tensile strengths between
415 and 550 MPa (60,000 and
80,000 psi), and a ductility of
25%EL.
Medium-Carbon Steels
 The medium-carbon steels have carbon
concentrations between about 0.25 and
0.60 wt%.
 These alloys may be heat-treated by
austenitizing,quenching,and then
tempering to improve their mechanical
properties.
 They are most often utilized in the
tempered condition, having
microstructures of tempered
martensite.
The compositions of several of these
alloyed medium-carbon steels
High-Carbon Steels

 The high-carbon steels,normally having carbon contents between 0.60

and 1.4 wt%, are the hardest,strongest,and yet least ductile of the
carbon steels.
 They are almost always used in a hardened and tempered condition.
 The tool and die steels are high-carbon alloys, usually containing
chromium, vanadium, tungsten, and molybdenum.
 It contains the mechanical
characteristics and typical
applications of several of
these steels,which have been
quenched and tempered.

 Some tool steel

compositions and their
applications
Stainless Steels

 are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of environments,

especially the ambient atmosphere.
 Their predominant alloying element is chromium; a concentration of at
least 11 wt% Cr is required.
 Stainless steels are divided into three classes on the basis of the
predominant phase constituent of the microstructure—martensitic,
ferritic, or austenitic.
Three classes on the basis of the predominant phase constituent of th
microstructure
Martensitic ferritic & austenitic.
 Martensitic stainless steels are
capable of being heat-treated in  Ferritic stainless steels are composed
of the -ferrite (BCC) phase.
such a way that martensite is
the prime microconstituent.  Austenitic and ferritic stainless steels
are hardened and strengthened by
cold work because they are not heat-
treatable.
 The austenitic stainless steels are
the most corrosion resistant because
of the high chromium contents and
also the nickel additions
 they are produced in the largest
quantities.
 several stainless steels
by class, along with
composition, typical
mechanical properties,
and applications
Next Reporter
Types of steels
20
Cast Irons

 Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C

 more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt% C
 Low melting – relatively easy to cast
 Generally brittle

 Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C  3 Fe () + C (graphite)

 generally a slow process

21
Fe-C True Equilibrium
Diagram T(ºC)
1600
Graphite formation
1400 L Liquid +
promoted by
g +L Graphite
 Si > 1 wt% 1200 g 1153ºC
 slow cooling Austenite 4.2 wt% C
1000
+g g + Graphite
800
740ºC

0.65
600
Adapted from Fig. 11.2,
 + Graphite
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. 400
[Fig. 11.2 adapted from 0 1 2 3 4 90 100
Binary Alloy Phase (Fe) C, wt% C
Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-
in-Chief), ASM International, The true equilibrium iron–carbon phase diagram
Materials Park, OH, 1990.]
with graphite instead of cementite as a stable
phase.
22 Types of Cast Iron
Adapted from Fig.
11.3(a) & (b),
Gray iron Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
 graphite flakes
 weak & brittle in tension
 stronger in compression
 excellent vibrational dampening
 wear resistant

Ductile iron
 add Mg and/or Ce
 graphite as nodules not flakes
 matrix often pearlite – stronger
but less ductile
 Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
23
Adapted from Fig.
11.3(c) & (d),
White iron Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
 < 1 wt% Si
 pearlite + cementite
 very hard and brittle

Malleable iron
 heat treat white iron at 800-
900ºC
 graphite in rosettes
 reasonably strong and ductile
 Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
24

Compacted graphite iron

 relatively high thermal
conductivity
 good resistance to thermal
shock
Adapted from Fig. 11.3(e),
 lower oxidation at elevated Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

temperatures
25 Production of Cast Irons

Adapted from Fig.11.5,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
26
Limitations of Ferrous
Alloys
1) Relatively high densities
2) Relatively low electrical conductivities
3) Generally poor corrosion resistance
27
Nonferrous Alloys
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -low r: 2.7 g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurities aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
Cu-Be: -very low r: 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
• Refractory metals
-relatively low r: 4.5 g/cm3
-high melting T’s
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T’s -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
Next reporter
29
Metal Fabrication

 How do we fabricate metals?

 Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
 Cast molten metal into mold

 Forming Operations
 Rough stock formed to final shape

Hot working vs. Cold

working
• Deformation temperature
• Deformation below
recrystallization
high enough for
temperature
recrystallization
• Strain hardening occurs
• Large deformations
• Small deformations
30
Metal Fabrication Methods (i)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Forging (Hammering; Stamping) • Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)

(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)
force
die roll
Ad
A o blank A d often at Ao
elev. T
roll
Adapted from
force Fig. 11.8,
• Drawing • Extrusion Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
Ao
die Ad container
tensile die holder
Ao force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die
container die
die must be well lubricated & clean ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot)
31 Metal Fabrication Methods (ii)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

 Casting- mold is filled with molten metal

 metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying
elements added, then cast in a mold
 common and inexpensive
 gives good production of shapes
 weaker products, internal defects
 good option for brittle materials
32 Metal Fabrication Methods (iii)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
 What material will withstand T >1600ºC
auto engine blocks)
and is inexpensive and easy to mold?
 Answer: sand!!!
Sand Sand
 To create mold, pack sand around form
molten metal (pattern) of desired shape
33 Metal Fabrication Methods (iv)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Investment Casting
(low volume, complex shapes
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
 Stage I — Mold formed by pouring wax I
plaster of paris around wax pattern.

Plaster allowed to harden.

• Stage II — Wax is melted and then II
poured from mold—hollow mold
cavity remains.
• Stage III — Molten metal is poured
III
into mold and allowed to solidify.
34 Metal Fabrication Methods (v)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Die Casting • Continuous Casting

-- high volume -- simple shapes
-- for alloys having low melting (e.g., rectangular slabs,
temperatures cylinders)

molten
solidified
35
Metal Fabrication Methods (vi)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Powder Metallurgy • Welding

(metals w/low ductilities) (when fabrication of one large
part is impractical)
pressure
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
heat-affected zone
area unaffected unaffected
contact piece 1 piece 2 Adapted from Fig.
11.9, Callister &
densify Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 11.9 from Iron
• Heat-affected zone: Castings
point contact densification Handbook, C.F.
by diffusion at
(region in which the Walton and T.J.
at low T
higher T microstructure has been Opar (Ed.), 1981.)

changed).
 Thermal Processing of Metals
36

Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.

• Stress Relief: Reduce • Spheroidize (steels):

stresses resulting from: Make very soft steels for
- plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
- nonuniform cooling below Teutectoid & hold for
- phase transform. 15-25 h.

• Full Anneal (steels):

Types of Make soft steels for
good forming. Heat
Annealing to get g , then furnace-cool
to obtain coarse pearlite.
• Process Anneal:
Negate effects of
• Normalize (steels): Deform
cold working by
steel with large grains. Then heat
(recovery/
treat to allow recrystallization
recrystallization)
and formation of smaller grains.

Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

 Heat Treatment Temperature-Time Paths
37

A
b) Quenching P
a) Full Annealing
c) Tempering
(Tempered
Martensite) A
B
10
0%
50
0% %

Fig. 10.25,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

b) a)
c)
38
Hardenability -- Steels
• Hardenability – measure of the ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test used to measure hardenability.

Adapted from Fig. 11.11,

flat ground Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
specimen (Fig. 11.11 adapted from
A.G. Guy, Essentials of
(heated to g Materials Science,
phase field) Rockwell C McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York,
24ºC water hardness tests 1978.)

• Plot hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness, HRC

Adapted from Fig. 11.12,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Distance from quenched end

 Reason Why Hardness Changes with Distance
39

• The cooling rate decreases with distance from quenched end.

Hardness, HRC
60

40

20 distance from quenched end (in)

0 1 2 3
T(ºC) 0%
600 P 100%
®
A Adapted from Fig. 11.13, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 11.13 adapted from H.
400 Boyer (Ed.) Atlas of Isothermal
Transformation and Cooling
M(start) Transformation Diagrams, American
200 Society for Metals, 1977, p. 376.)
A®M

Pe ine ens
0 M(finish)

ar P ite
F
M
M e ns

l i t e ea +
ar
ar ite
t
t

rli Pe
te a r
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Time (s)

lite
 Hardenability vs Alloy
40 Composition
100 10 3 2 Cooling rate (ºC/s)
60

Hardness, HRC
• Hardenability curves for 100
five alloys each with, 4340 80 %M
C = 0.4 wt% C 50
40 4140

Adapted from Fig. 11.14, Callister &

8640

10
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 11.14 adapted from

40
5140
figure furnished courtesy Republic Steel 20
Corporation.) 0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from quenched end (mm)
• "Alloy Steels" 800
(4140, 4340, 5140, 8640) T(ºC) TE
-- contain Ni, Cr, Mo 600
A B
(0.2 to 2 wt%)
400
-- these elements shift
the "nose" to longer times 200 M(start)
(from A to B) M(90%)
-- martensite is easier 0 -1
to form 10 10 103 105 Time (s)
 Influences of Quenching Medium & Specimen Geometry
41

• Effect of quenching medium:

Medium Severity of Quench Hardness

air low low
oil moderate moderate
water high high
• Effect of specimen geometry:
When surface area-to-volume ratio increases:
-- cooling rate throughout interior increases
-- hardness throughout interior increases

Position Cooling rate Hardness

center low low
surface high high
 Precipitation Hardening
42
• Particles impede dislocation motion.
700
• Ex: Al-Cu system
T(ºC) L CuAl2
• Procedure: 600  +L
-- Pt A: solution heat treat q+L
A
(get  solid solution) 500 q
+q
-- Pt B: quench to room temp. C
400
(retain  solid solution)
-- Pt C: reheat to nucleate 300
small q particles within 0 B 10 20 30 40 50
(Al) wt% Cu
 phase. composition range
available for precipitation hardening
 Other alloys that precipitation
Adapted from Fig. 11.24, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
harden: Temp. (Fig. 11.24 adapted from J.L. Murray, International
Pt A (sol’n heat treat) Metals Review 30, p.5, 1985.)
• Cu-Be
• Cu-Sn
• Mg-Al Pt C (precipitate q)

Adapted from Fig.

11.22, Callister & Time
Rethwisch 8e. Pt B
 Influence of Precipitation Heat Treatment on TS, %EL
43

• 2014 Al Alloy:
• Maxima on TS curves. • Minima on %EL curves.
• Increasing T accelerates
process.

ita ll
cip ma
“ag tes
”
ed
ion

pre ny s
so .

era ita ge
lid uil
lut

“ov recip r lar

ge tes
so n-eq
30

ma
tensile strength (MPa)

%EL (2 in sample)
d”
e
no

400

few
20

p
300
149ºC 10
200 204ºC 149ºC
204ºC
100 0
1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time precipitation heat treat time
Adapted from Fig. 11.27, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 11.27 adapted from Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing
Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979. p. 41.)
44
Summary
• Ferrous alloys: steels and cast irons
• Non-ferrous alloys:
-- Cu, Al, Ti, and Mg alloys; refractory alloys; and noble metals.
• Metal fabrication techniques:
-- forming, casting, miscellaneous.
• Hardenability of metals
-- measure of ability of a steel to be heat treated.
-- increases with alloy content.
• Precipitation hardening
--hardening, strengthening due to formation of
precipitate particles.
--Al, Mg alloys precipitation hardenable.