AIR COMPRESSOR

Air Compressors

COMPRESSOR – A device which takes a definite quantity of fluid ( usually gas, and

most often air ) and deliver it at a required pressure.

Air Compressor – 1) Takes in atmospheric air,

2) Compresses it, and

3) Delivers it to a storage vessel ( i.e. Reservoir ).

Compression requires Work to be done on the gas,

 Compressor must be driven by some sort of Prime Mover ( i.e. Engine )

 Application of compressed air

 For operating pneumatic tools such as drills, screw

drivers, hammers, chisels
 For pneumatic cranes
 For pneumatic brakes of automobiles, railways and
presses
 For agricultural accessories such as dusters and
sprayers
 Application of compressed air

 For drive of CNC machine tools

 For pneumatic conveying of materials
 For pneumatic gauging, inspection and low cost automation
systems
 Introduction to compressors

 An air compressor is a mechanical device that

increases the pressure of air by reducing volume.
 Air is compressible, the compressor reduces the
volume of air and induces pressure in the air
 An air compressor converts electrical energy into
pressure energy of the air
 Introduction to compressors

 The compressed air is stored in the air receiver and

can be used for cleaning under pressure, generating
torque and develop force using actuators
 This source is free of cost, safe, flexible and
convenient
 Air compressor has very few parts hence
maintenance is very low
 Classification
 Air compressors are classified according to method
of energy transfer and pressure generation i.e.
positive displacement and dynamic compressors

 Positive displacement compressors work on the

principle of increasing the pressure of air by reducing
the volume of air in an enclosed chamber

 Dynamic compressors works on the principle of

imparting the energy by rotating vanes of impeller on
air flowing through casing that increases pressure in
air
 Classification
Air Compressors

Reciprocating Rotary

Centrifugal

No. of Stages No. of Sides of Piston

for Compression in operation
Single – stage Single – acting
Multi - stage Double - Acting
Classification
 Classification
 According to number of stages
Single stage, double stage, three stage of multiple stage
 According to action
Single acting or double acting
 According to position of cylinder w.r.t. crankshaft
Cylinders inline, vertical, radial position, V-type
cylinder arrangement
 According to prime mover
Electric motor drive or IC engine drive, Gas turbine
drives
 According to cooling medium
Air cooled, water cooled air compressors
 Reciprocating Compressor

 Reciprocating air compressors are positive displacement type of air

compressors.
 These are piston & diaphragm type, vane type, gear type, screw
type compressors.
 A reciprocating air compressor consist of a piston which is
enclosed within a cylinder and equipped with suction and discharge
valve
 The piston receives power from electric motor or IC engine.
 Reciprocating Compressor - Working

Principle of Operation
 Fig. shows single-acting piston actions
in the cylinder of a reciprocating
compressor.
 The piston is driven by a crank shaft
via a connecting rod.
 At the top of the cylinder are a suction
valve and a discharge valve.
 A reciprocating compressor usually has
two, three, four, or six cylinders in it.
Reciprocating Compressor - Working
 Reciprocating Compressor - Working
 When piston starts moving downwards, the pressure inside
the cylinder falls below atmospheric pressure that opens
suction valve.
 The pressure of the air in the cylinder rises during
compression and at the end of compression, delivery valve
opens and discharges the compressed air into the receiver
tank.
 Single stage air compressor develop pressure upto 7 bar.
 For higher pressures multistage compressors are suitable
 Advantages
 Simple in design
 Lower initial cost
 Easy to install
 Higher efficiency
Disadvantages
 Number of moving parts are more
 Higher maintenance cost
 Heavy foundation is required as it has vibration
problem
 Cannot run at full capacity
 ANALYSIS OF
RECIPROCATING
AIR COMPRESSOR
 Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work

3 2’ 2 2”
P2 PV  C
(Isothermal)
PV   C
(Adiabatic)
Pressure

PV n  C
4 1 (Polytropic)
P1

V2 V1
Volume
Operations : 4 – 1 : Volume V1 of air aspirated into Compressor, at P1 and T1.
1 – 2 : Air compressed according to PVn = Const. from P1 to P2.
→ Temp increase from T1 to T2.
2 – 3 : Compressed air at P2 and V2 with temperature T2 is delivered.
 Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work
During Compression, due to the excess temperature above surrounding, the air will
exchange the heat to the surrounding.
 Compression Index, n is always less than γ, the adiabatic index.

As Compressor is a work consuming device, every effort is desired to reduce the work.

Work done = Area under P-V curve

 1 – 2” : Adiabatic Compression = Max. Work.
 1 – 2 : Polytropic Compression
 1 – 2’ : Isothermal Compression = Min. Work.
 Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work
Thus, comparison between the Isothermal Work and the Actual Work is important.
Isothermal Work
Isothermal Efficiency, ηiso =
Actual Work
Thus, more the Isothermal Efficiency, more the actual compression approaches to the
Isothermal Compression.
Actual Work = Wact = Area 4-1-2-3-4
3 2’ 2 2”
P2 PV  C Wact = Area (4-1) – Area (1-2) – Area (2-3)
(Isothermal) P2V2  P1V1

PV  C  P1V1   P2V2
(Adiabatic)
n 1
 P V  P1V1 
4
PV n  C  P1V1  P2V2    2 2 
P1
1 (Polytropic)  n  1 
 PV  P2V2 
 P1V1  P2V2    1 1 
V2 V1  n 1 
 Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work
 1 
Wiso  1   P1V1  P2V2 
 n 1 
 n 
3 2’ 2 2”   P1V1  P2V2 
P2 PV  C  n 1 
(Isothermal)  n   P2V2 
PV   C   P1V1 1  
(Adiabatic)  n 1   P1V1 
PV n  C
P1V1  P2V2
n n
4 1 (Polytropic) Now,
P1
1/ n
V2  P1 
   
V2 V1 V1  P2 

 n  
 P2 P1 
1/ n


Wiso    P1V1 1    
 n  1   P1  P2  
 
 Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work
 n   P  P 1/ n 
Wiso    P1V1 1  2  1  
 n 1   P1  P2  

 n   P  P   1/ n 
3 2’ 2 2”  P1V1 1  2  2  
P2 PV  C 
(Isothermal)
 n 1   P1  P1  
PV   C  n 1

(Adiabatic)  n    P2   n
PV n  C Wiso   P1V1 1    
4 1 (Polytropic)  n 1    P1  
P1  
 n 1

V2 V1  n    P  n

Delivery Temperature, Wiso   mRT1 1   2  
n 1  n 1    P1  
 
 P2  n
T2  T1 
 P 
The solution of this equation is always negative.
 1 This shows that Work is done ON the Compressor.
 Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work
Clearance Volume :

6 3 2 Volume that remains inside the cylinder

P2
after the piston reaches the end of its
inward stroke.
PV n  C
5 4 1
P1 Thus, Effective Stroke Volume = V1 – V4
V3 V4 V1

Effective Swept Volume, V1-V4

Clearance Volume, Actual Work = Wact = Area 1-2-3-4
V3=Vc Swept Volume, V1-V3=Vs

Total Volume, V1 Wact = Area (5-1-2-6) – Area (5-4-3-6)

 Reciprocating Compressor – Efficiency
Clearance Volume : Consists of two spaces.
1. Space between cylinder end & the piston to allow for wear.
2. Space for reception of valves.
High – class H.P. compressors : Clearance Vol. = 3 % of Swept Vol.
: Lead (Pb) fuse wire used to measure the gap between
cylinder end and piston.

Low – grade L.P. compressors : Clearance Vol. = 6 % of Swept Vol.

: Flattened ball of putty used to measure the gap
between cylinder end and piston.
Effect of Clearance Vol. :
Vol. taken in per stroke < Swept Vol.  ↑ Size of compressor
↑ Power to drive compressor.
 Reciprocating Compressor – Equation for Work
 m 1
  m 1

n  P   n n  P   n
Wact  P1V1 1   2    P4V4 1   3  
6 3 2 n 1   P1   n  1   P4  
P2    
But, P4 = P1 and P3 = P2
 m 1

PV  Cn
n  P   n
 Wact  P1V1 1   2  
5 4 n 1   P1  
P1
1  
V3 V4 V1  m 1

n   P  n

 P1V4 1   2  
Effective Swept Volume, V1-V4 n 1   P1  
Clearance Volume,  
V3=Vc Swept Volume, V1-V3=Vs

 n  
 P  P1 
1/ n


 P1 V1  V4  1  2
Total Volume, V1
Wact    
 n 1  

P1  P2  

 Reciprocating Compressor – Volumetric Efficiency
Volumetric Efficiency :

Ratio of free air delivered to the displacement of the compressor.

6 3 2 Ratio of Effective Swept Volume to Swept Volume.
P2
Presence of Clearance Volume
Volumetric Efficiency less than 1. ( 60 – 85 % )
PV n  C
Effective Swept Volume

Volumetric Efficiency =
5 4 1 Swept Volume
P1
V1 – V4
V3 V4 V1
=
V1 – V3
Effective Swept Volume, V1-V4
Clearance Volume, Clearance Volume
V3=Vc Swept Volume, V1-V3=Vs Clearance Ratio =
Swept Volume
Total Volume, V1
Vc
= = C ( 4 – 10 % )
Vs
 Reciprocating Compressor – Volumetric Efficiency
↑ Pr. Ratio ↑ Effect of Clearance Volume
….Clearance air expansion through greater volume before intake


Cylinder bore and stroke is fixed.

6 3 2
P2  Effective Swept Volume (V1 – V4) ↓ with ↑ Pr. Ratio

 ↓ Volumetric Efficiency
V1  V4
 vol 
5 4 1 V1  V3
P1

V1  V3   V3  V4   1
V3

V4
V1  V3  V1  V3  V1  V3 
V3 V4 V1
Effective Swept Volume,
V1-V4 V3 V4 V
Clearance Volume,  1   3
V3=Vc Swept Volume, V1-V3=Vs V1  V3  V1  V3  V3
Total Volume, V1 V3 V3 V
 1   4
V1  V3  V1  V3  V3
 Reciprocating Compressor – Volumetric Efficiency

6 3 2
P2

5 4 1
P1
V3 V4 V1
Effective Swept Volume,
V1-V4
Clearance Volume,
V3=Vc Swept Volume, V1-V3=Vs

Total Volume, V1
 Reciprocating Compressor – Actual P-V Diagram

Receiver Pressure 1-2-3-4-1 : Theoretical P-V Diagram.

3 2 At 4, inlet valve does not open due to :

P2
1. There must be a pressure difference across the valve to open.
2. Inlet valve inertia.
Pr. Drop continues till sufficient level
Atmospheric Pressure for valve to force its seat.
Intake Depression
4 Some valve bounce is set (wavy line).
1
P1 Eventually, the pressure sets down at a level lower
Valve Bounce than atmospheric pressure. This negative pressure
difference is known as Intake Depression.

Similar situation appears at 2, i.e. at the start of the delivery.

Pressure rise, followed by valve bounce and then pressure settles at a level higher than
the delivery pressure level.

Air delivery to a tank / receiver, hence, generally known as Receiver Pressure.

 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage

High Pressure required by Single – Stage :

 1. Requires heavy working parts.

2. Has to accommodate high pressure ratios.
3. Increased balancing problems.
4. High Torque fluctuations.
5. Requires heavy Flywheel installations.

This demands for MULTI – STAGING…!!

 Multi stage Reciprocating Air compressors
 It consist of two or more cylinders – low pressure cylinder and high
pressure cylinder
 Piston, crankcase, piston rod, crank, crankshaft, oil, fins etc.
 The fresh air is drawn inside the L.P. cylinder through inlet suction
filter.
 This air is compressed by piston
 As the piston moves towards the end of cylinder, the air compression
took place.
 The delivery valve opens and this compressed air from L.P. cylinder is
directed to enter inside the high pressure cylinder.
 In high pressure cylinder this pressurized air is further compressed to
higher pressure.
 The high pressure air from H.P. cylinder is then delivered to receiver
through discharge valves.
 In this compressor, a pressure of air delivered is upto 13 bar.
Double stage Reciprocating Air compressors
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
Series arrangement of cylinders, in which the compressed air from earlier cylinder
(i.e. discharge) becomes the intake air for the next cylinder (i.e. inlet).

L.P. = Low Pressure

Intercooler I.P. = Intermediate

Air Delivery
Pressure
H.P. = High Pressure

L.P. I.P. H.P. Intercooler :

Cylinder Cylinder Cylinder
Compressed air is cooled
between cylinders.

Intercooler

Air Intake
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
Delivery Pr. 6 9 3 5 Overall Pr. Range : P1 – P3
Perfect Intercooling
P3 or Pd
Single – stage cycle : 8-1-5-6
Without Intercooling
H.P. Without Intercooling :
PV n  C L.P. : 8-1-4-7
Intermediate Pr. 7 4
P2 H.P. : 7-4-5-6
2 PV  C
L.P. With Intercooling :
Intake Pr. 8 1 L.P. : 8-1-4-7
P1 or Ps
H.P. : 7-2-3-6
Volume
Perfect Intercooling : After initial compression in L.P. cylinder, air is cooled in the
Intercooler to its original temperature, before entering H.P. cylinder
i.e. T2 = T1 OR
Points 1 and 2 are on SAME Isothermal line.
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
Ideal Conditions for Multi – Stage Compressors :

A. Single – Stage Compressor :

6 9 3 5 Single – stage cycle : 8-1-5-6

 n

n   P5  
n 1
H.P. W P1 V1 1   
n 1   P1  
7 PV n  C  
4
2 PV  C Delivery Temperature,
L.P. n 1
8 1  P5  n
T5  T1 
P  
 1
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
B. Two – Stage Compressor (Without Intercooling) :
Without Intercooling :
6 9 3 5 L.P. : 8-1-4-7
H.P. : 7-4-5-6

H.P.  n 1

n   P4  
n

PV n  C W  P1 V1 1   
7 4 n 1   P1  
 
2 PV  C
L.P.  n 1

n   P5   n
8 1  P4 V4 1   
n 1   P4  
 

Without Intercooling  Delivery Temperature also remains SAME.

This is SAME as that of Work done in Single – Stage.
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
C. Two – Stage Compressor (With Perfect Intercooling) :
With Intercooling :
L.P. : 8-1-4-7-8
6 9 3 5
H.P. : 7-2-3-6-7
 n 1

 
P1 V1 1   4  
n P n
W 
H.P. n 1   P1  
 
7 PV n  C
4
 n 1

P 
PV  C P2 V2 1   3  
2 n n

L.P. n 1   P2  
8 1  
Delivery Temperature,
n 1 n 1
 P3  n  P3  n
T3  T2    T1   , as T2  T1
 P2   P2 
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
C. Two – Stage Compressor (With Perfect Intercooling) :
6 9 3 5
With Intercooling :
L.P. : 8-1-4-7-8
H.P. : 7-2-3-6-7
H.P.

7 PV n  C Now, T2 = T1
4
P2V2 = P1V1
2 PV  C
L.P.
8 Also P4 = P 2
1

 n 1 n 1

n   P2  n  P3  n

W  P1 V1 2      
n 1   P1   P2  
 
Shaded Area 2-4-5-3-2 : Work Saving due to Intercooler…!!
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
Condition for Min. Work :
Intermediate Pr. P2 → P1 : Area 2-4-5-3-2 → 0

Intermediate Pr. P2 → P3 : Area 2-4-5-3-2 → 0

6 9 3 5
 There is an Optimum P2 for which Area 2-4-5-3-2
is maximum,
H.P. i.e. Work is minimum…!!

7 PV n  C 
 
n 1
 
n 1

P1 V1 2   2    3  
4 n P n P n
W
2 PV  C n 1   P1   P2  
L.P.  
For min. Work,
8 1
 n 1 n 1

P  P 
d  2 
n n
   3 
 P1   P2  
dW  
  0
dP2 dP2
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
Condition for Min. Work :  n 1 n 1

   
d  2    3  
P n P n

 P1   P2  
 
 
dW
 0
dP2 dP2

 n 1   n 1   n 1    n 1   n 1  
1
n 1
 
 2 P 
 n
 1
   P3 
 n

     
 2 P 
 n
 1

  0
P1  n  n    n  
6 9 3 5
P2 1/ n  P1 P 
 n 1 

 n 

  2 n 1  3
H.P. P2  n 
PV n  C
P2 2  P1 P3 
7 4
2 PV  C
L.P.
P2 P
8 1 P2  P1 P3 OR  3
P1 P2
 Reciprocating Compressor – Multistage
P2 obtained with this condition (Pr. Ratio per stage is equal) is the Ideal Intermediate
Pr. Which, with Perfect Intercooling, gives Minimum Work, Wmin.

  Equal Work per cylinder…!!

 n 1

 
P1 V1 1   2  
2n P n
W
n 1   P1  
 
 n 1

W
2n  P P 1/ 2
P1 V1 1   1 3  
 n

n 1  P1  
  

 n 1

 
P1 V1 1   3  
2n P 2 n
W
n 1   P1  
 
 Reciprocating Compressor – Efficiency

Isothermal work done / cycle = Area of P – V Diagram

= P1V1 loge(P2/P1)

Isothermal Power = P1V1 loge(P2/P1) N

kW
60 X 1000

Indicated Power : Power obtained from the actual indicator card taken during a
test on the compressor.

Compressor Efficiency = Isothermal Power

Indicated Power

Isothermal Efficiency = Isothermal Power

Shaft Power or Input power
NOTE : Shaft Power = Brake Power required to drive the Compressor.
 Reciprocating Compressor – Efficiency

Mechanical Efficiency : Ratio of mechanical output to mechanical input.

Mechanical Efficiency, ηmech = Indicated Power

Shaft Power
 Reciprocating Compressor – Efficiency
How to Increase Isothermal Efficiency ?

A. Spray Injection : Assimilation of water into the compressor cylinder towards the
compression stroke.
Object is to cool the air for next operation.

Demerits : 1. Requires special gear for injection.

2. Injected water interferes with the cylinder lubrication.
3. Damage to cylinder walls and valves.
4. Water must be separated before delivery of air.

B. Water Jacketing : Circulating water around the cylinder to help for cooling the
air during compression.
 Reciprocating Compressor – Efficiency
How to Increase Isothermal Efficiency ?

C. Inter – Cooling : For high speed and high Pr. Ratio compressors.
Compressed air from earlier stage is cooled to its original
temperature before passing it to the next stage.

D. External Fins : For small capacity compressors, fins on external surfaces are useful.

E. Cylinder Proportions : Short stroke and large bore provides much greater surface
for cooling.
Cylinder head surface is far more effective than barrel surface.