Grinding Operations

May 16,
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Grinding
 Machining materials which are
too hard for other machining
processes such as tool and die
steels and hardened steel
materials
 Close dimensional accuracy of
the order of 0.3 to 0.5 m
 High degree of surface finish
such as Ra = 0.15 to 1.25 m.
May 16,
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 Abrasive Processes

Process Features

Grinding Generally for finishing. Low

material removal rate

Creep feed Slow feed and large depth of

grinding cut

May 16, 2019 3

 Abrasive Processes

Process Features

Honing contain fine abrasives for hole

finishing

Lapping For super finishing

May 16, 2019 4

Abrasives

 The abrasive grains are basically spherical in

shape with large sharp points which act as
cutting edges.
 All the grains are of random orientations and
as such the rake angle presented to the work
material can vary from positive to a large
negative value.
 Many times, grit may also slide rather than
cut because of its orientation.
May 16,
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2019
Abrasives

 The depth of cut taken by each of the grain is

very small.
 A large number of grits are simultaneously
acting and hence the material removed is large.
 High speeds employed are large.
 Chips produced - very small and red hot.
 Chips can get welded easily to the abrasive
grain or to the workpiece.
 Grinding process is inefficient compared to the
conventional metal cutting processes.
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Grinding

 Specific
energy of grinding
 50 J/mm3

 Specific
energy of other
processes  2 to 5 J/mm3

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 Grinding Process

 Workpiece brought into contact with

revolving grinding wheel
 Each small
abrasive grain on
periphery of
wheel acts as
individual cutting tool
and removes chip
of metal
81-8

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.
Grinding wheel designation

Abrasive types
Grain size
Bond
Grade
Structure
May 16,
9
2019
Abrasive types

Aluminum oxide (Al2O3),

Silicon Carbide (SiC)
Cubic Boron Nitride
(CBN)
Diamond
May 16,
10
2019
 80-11

Knoop Hardness of Various

Hardness
Scale Metals and Abrasives
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Diamond CBN Vanadium AL2O3 Tungsten High Steel Soft Steel
Carbide Carbide HRC 65 HRB 85
Abrasive types

Abrasive Knoop Hardness Uses

Aluminium oxide 2000 to 3000 Softer and tougher than SiC used for
steels and high strength materials

May 16, 2019 12

 Abrasive types

Abrasive Knoop Hardness Uses

Aluminium oxide 2000 to 3000 Softer and tougher than SiC used for
steels and high strength materials

Silicon carbide 2100 to 3000 Non ferrous, non metallic materials,

Hard and dense metals and good
finish

May 16, 2019 13

 Abrasive types

Abrasive Knoop Hardness Uses

Aluminium oxide 2000 to 3000 Softer and tougher than SiC used for
steels and high strength materials

Silicon carbide 2100 to 3000 Non ferrous, non metallic materials,

Hard and dense metals and good
finish
Cubic Boron Nitride 4000 to 5000 Hard and tough tool steels, stainless
steel, aerospace alloys, hard coatings

May 16, 2019 14

 Abrasive types

Abrasive Knoop Hardness Uses

Aluminium oxide 2000 to 3000 Softer and tougher than SiC used for
steels and high strength materials

Silicon carbide 2100 to 3000 Non ferrous, non metallic materials,

Hard and dense metals and good
finish
Cubic Boron Nitride 4000 to 5000 Hard and tough tool steels, stainless
steel, aerospace alloys, hard coatings

Diamond (synthetic) 7000 to 8000 Some die steels and tungsten carbide

May 16, 2019 15

 FIGURE L-41 Large grains of silicon carbide
(Exolon Company).

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 FIGURE L-42 Cubic boron nitride (Borozon™ Specialty
Materials Dept., General Electric Company).

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 FIGURE L-43 Manufactured diamond abrasive
(Specialty Materials Dept., General Electric Company).

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Grain size

 The size of an abrasive grain or more generally

called as grit is identified by a number which is
based on the sieve size used.
 These would vary from a very coarse size of 6
or 8 to a super fine size of 500 or 600.
 Sieve number is specified in terms of the
number of openings per square inch.
 Thus larger the grain number finer is the grain
size.
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 Grain Size

 Abrasive ingot (pig) removed from electric furnace, crushed, grains

cleaned and then sized by passing them through screens
 Contain certain number of meshes or openings per inch

8-grain 24-grain 60-grain

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.
Commercial Grain size
Classification

Very
Coarse Coarse Medium Fine Very Fine Flour Size
1 14 30 70 150 280
8 16 36 80 180 320
10 20 46 90 220 400
12 24 54 100 240 500
60 120 600
Grain Sizes

 General applications for various grain sizes

8 to 54 for rough grinding operations
 54 to 400 for precision grinding processes
 320 to 2000 for ultra precision processes to
produce 2 to 4 µ (micron) finish or fine
Grain size

 The fine grains would take a very small

depth of cut and hence a better surface
finish.
 Also fine grains generate less heat and is
good for faster material removal.
 Though each grain cuts less, there are more
grains per unit surface area of the wheel in
case of fine grain size.
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Vitrified Bond

 This is the most commonly used bond.

 The bond is actually clay mixed with fluxes such
as feldspar, which hardens to a glass like
substance on firing to a temperature of about
1250C (2280F ) and develops the strength.
 This bond is strong, rigid and porous, and not
affected by fluids.
 However, this bond is brittle and hence sensitive to
impacts.
 This bond is also called ceramic bond.

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Silicate Bond

 This is sodium silicate (NaSiO3) or water

glass and hardens when heated.
 Not as strong as vitrified.
 This can be used in operations that generate
less heat.
 It is affected by dampness but less sensitive
to shocks.
 Relatively less used.
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Synthetic resin Bond

 These bonding materials are thermosetting resin

such as phenol formaldehyde.
 This bond has good strength and more elastic than
the vitrified bond.
 However, this is not heat and chemical resistant.
 Generally used for rough grinding, parting off and
high speed grinding (50 to 65 m/s). = (12,787 fpm)
 It can also be used for fine finishing of roll grinding.
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Rubber Bond

 Of all the bonds used, this is the most flexible.

 The bond is made up of natural or synthetic
rubber.
 The strength is developed with vulcanisation.
 This has high strength and less porous.
 This bond is affected by dampness and alkaline
solutions.
 Generally used for cutting off wheels, regulating
wheels in centre less grinding and for polishing
wheels.
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Shellac Bond

 This is relatively less used bond. Used

generally for getting very high finish.
 Typical applications are rolls, cutlery, and
cam shaft finishing.

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Metal Bond

 This is used in the manufacture of diamond

and CBN wheels.
 The wheel can be made of any high thermal
conductive metal such as copper alloys or
aluminium alloys.
 The periphery of the wheel upto a small
depth of the order of 5 mm or less contains
the abrasive grit.

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Metal Bond

 The choice of the metal depends on the

required strength, rigidity and dimensional
stability.
 In view of the strong bond, the grit will not be
knocked out till it is fully utilised.
 Powder metallurgy techniques are used to
make the abrasive periphery.

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Grade
 It is also called the hardness of the wheel. This
designates the force holding the grains.
 The grade of a wheel depends on the kind of
bond, structure of wheel and amount of abrasive
grains.
 Greater bond content and strong bond results in
harder grinding wheel.
 Harder wheels hold the abrasive grains till the
grinding force increases to a great extent.
 Very soft Medium Very hard
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

Soft wheels are generally used for hard materials and hard
wheels are used for soft materials. May 16,
31
2019
 FIGURE L-50 Three sketches illustrating (from top down) a soft, a medium,
and a hard wheel. This is the grade of the wheel. The white areas are voids
with nothing but air, but black lines are the bond, and the others are the
abrasive grain. The harder the wheel, the greater the proportion of bond and,
usually, the smaller the voids (Bay State Abrasives, Sterling, Inc.).

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Structure

 The structure of a grinding wheel represents the grain

spacing.
 It can be open or dense.

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 FIGURE L-51 Three similar sketches showing structure. From the
top down, dense, medium, and open structure or grain spacing. The
proportions of bond, grain, and voids in all three sketches are about
the same (Bay State Abrasives, Sterling, Inc.).

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 80-35

Standard Marking System

opt. 1 2 3 4 5 6
51 A 36 L 5 V 23
V – Vitrified
Manufacturer's
Abrasive –Type
SGrain size BondManufacturers
GradeStructure
Silicate type
Asymbol
Soft R – Rubber
– Aluminum Oxide Dense to OpenRecord
Manufacturers
Medium Hard
private
indicating exact
ASB –C Silicon
DE FG
RF H–I JRubber
K
Carbide LM 1 2Nmarking
3O4P5Q…..etc.
RSTUVWXYZ
reinforced
kind of abrasive to identify wheel
B – Resinoid
(use optional)
BF – Resinoid reinforced
E – Shellac
O - Oxychloride
 FIGURE L-49 Wheel specification.

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Grinding wheel specifications for different
grinding operations

Operation Grinding wheel

designation
Cylindrical grinding of hardened steel A60L5V
Cylindrical grinding of soft steel A54M5V
Cylindrical grinding of aluminium C36K5V
Surface grinding of hardened steel A60F12V
Surface grinding of soft steel A46J5V
Surface grinding of grey cast iron C36J8V
Tool grinding of high speed steel A46K8V
May 16, 2019 38
Characteristics That Indicate
Wheel Too Soft

1. Breaks down too fast

2. Poor surface finish
3. Cuts freely
4. Sparks out quickly
5. Difficult to maintain size
6. Scratches (fishtails)
Characteristics That Indicate
Wheel Too Hard

1. Wheel glazes quickly

2. Loading (material ground fills voids)
3. Burned work surface
4. Squealing noise
5. Doesn't cut freely
6. Inaccurate work dimensions
7. Surface finish get progressively better
8. Heat checks
Wheel Balancing

 In view of the high rotational speeds used, any

residual unbalance left would be harmful for the
machine part and also produces poor surface
finish.
 Such wheels are provided with movable balance
weights for adjusting the balance mass location.
 The balancing operation can be carried in two
ways:
 Static balancing
 Dynamic balancing

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 FIGURE L-67 With the weights at some point between the vertical
and the horizontal centerlines, the wheel should be in proper
balance, stationary in any position. If not, a matched pair of differing
balance weights should be used (Bay State Abrasives, Sterling, Inc.).

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Dressing and Truing

 With continuous use a grinding wheel becomes

dull with the sharp abrasive grains becoming
rounded.
 This condition of dull grinding wheel with worn out
grains is termed as glazing.
 Further some grinding chips gets lodged into the
spaces between the grit with the resulting
condition known as loaded wheel.
 Loading is generally caused during the grinding
of soft and ductile materials.
 A loaded grinding wheel cannot cut properly.
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 FIGURE L-52 The wheel at the top is called loaded with bits of
metal embedded in its grinding face. It is inappropriate to do off-
hand grinding of soft metals like aluminum on a pedestal grinder. The
same wheel, below, has been dressed to remove the loading
(Desmond-Stephan Manufacturing Company).

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 FIGURE L-54 Single-point diamond dresser. The most
important precaution in using such a dresser is to turn
the diamond often to avoid grinding flats on it. This
diamond is pointing to the right (Desmond-Stephan
Manufacturing Company).

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 FIGURE L-55 Cluster dressers have come into use
mostly because several smaller diamonds are less
expensive than one large diamond (Desmond-Stephan
Manufacturing Company).

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 FIGURE L-56 This is one of several ways of mounting a dresser on a
surface grinder. The dresser with its diamond is placed and
magnetically secured on a clean magnetic chuck. Note that the
diamond is slanted at a 15-degree angle and slightly past the vertical
centerline of the wheel (DoALL Company).

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 FIGURE L-57 Built-in wheel dresser. The lever
traverses the diamond across the wheel.

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Types of Grinding Machines

 Cylindrical grinding
 for generating cylindrical
surfaces
 Surface grinding
 for generating flat surfaces, and
 Centre less grinding
 forgenerating axi-symmetric
shapes. May 16,
2019
49
May 16,
50
2019
 FIGURE L-8 Principle of the cylindrical grinding
machine showing the workpiece and wheel motions (Bay
State Abrasives, Sterling, Inc.).

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 FIGURE L-9 Working area of a plain cylindrical
grinder (Diamond Abrasives Corporation).

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 FIGURE L-10 Universal cylindrical grinder
(Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.).

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 FIGURE L-12 Angular center-type grinder with
automatic control (Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.).

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 FIGURE L-13 Typical application of the angular
center-type grinding machine showing angled grinding
wheel finishing both diameter and shoulder.

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Surface Grinding

 Similar to Milling machine

 Horizontal spindle and rotating
table
 Vertical spindle and rotating table
 Horizontal spindle and reciprocating
table
 Vertical spindle and reciprocating
table May 16,
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2019
 FIGURE L-1 Principle of the type I surface
grinder (Bay State/Sterling, Inc.).

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 FIGURE L-2 Type I surface grinder (Boyar-Schultz
Corporation).

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 May 16,
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 FIGURE L-4 Principle of the type III surface grinder,
which has a vertical spindle and a reciprocating table
(Bay State Abrasives, Sterling, Inc.).

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 May 16,
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 Large vertical spindle rotary table grinding machine
(Mattison Machine Works).

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 Principle of internal cylindrical grinding (Bay
State/Sterling, Inc.).

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Centre less Grinding

 Through feed
 Infeed
 End feed

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 May 16,
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 May 16,
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Advantages

 There is no need for having and maintaining

centres and centre holes.
 Workpieces can be loaded and unloaded
from the machine rapidly.
 Grinding is almost continuous for through feed
grinding.
 Backing up the workpiece by the regulating
wheel and work rest blade practically
eliminates any deflection of the workpiece.
 This permits maximum material removal rates.
May 16,
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Advantages

 Minimum wear is observed in view of the large

grinding wheels used.
 This minimises the adjustments needed for staying
within dimensional tolerances and maximises the
periods of time between wheel dressing.
 Workpieces may often be loaded into the
machine by the automatic feeding devices.
 Less grinding allowance may be required,
because the out-of-roundness is corrected
across the diameter rather than the radius.
May 16,
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Grinding conditions

 Wheel speed
 Work speed (in case of cylindrical grinding)
 Traverse feed of the wheel
 In feed, and
 Area of contact

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Grinding Wheel wear

 The wheel wear is generally measured with a

parameter called 'Grinding Ratio' which is defined
as the ratio of volume of metal removed to the
volume removed from the grinding wheel.

May 16,
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 Grinding process parameters on
performance

Variable Grinding Net Surface

ratio power finish
Increase in wheel Increased Slightly Improved
speed increased
Increased depth Decreased Increased Deteriorates
of cut
Increase in work Decreased Increased Deteriorates
speed
May 16, 2019 72
 Grinding process parameters on
performance

Variable Grinding Net Surface

ratio power finish
Increase in work Increased Increased No significant
diameter Slightly change

Increase in metal Decreased Increased Deteriorates

removal rate

Increase in work Increased Slightly Improves

material hardness Increased

May 16, 2019 73

Honing

 Honing is a low abrading process using

bonded abrasive sticks for removing stock
from metallic and non-metallic surfaces.
 Most commonly used for internal surfaces.
 This is an operation performed as the final
operation to correct the errors that resulted
from the previous machining operations.

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May 16,
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2019
Honing

 Abrasive grains are bonded in the form of sticks by a vitreous or resin

material and the sticks are presented to the work so that their full
cutting forces are in contact with the work surfaces.
 Since a large number of abrasive grains are presented to the work
surface simultaneously, substantial material removal takes place.

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May 16,
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Lapping

 Lapping is generally the final finishing operation done with loose

abrasive grains.
 This process is employed to get
 Extreme accuracy of dimension
 Correction of minor imperfection of shape
 Refinement of surface finish
 Close fit between mating surfaces

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Lapping

 Lapping is done by charging a lap made of

soft material with abrasive particles and
rubbing it over the workpiece surface with a
slight pressure.
 Pressure is applied on the lap and is moved
with the loose abrasive between the lap and
the work removing the material from the
work till the work confirms to the profile of
the lap. May 16,
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2019
May 16,
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 May 16,
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Superfinishing

 Super finishing is another abrasive process

utilising either a bonded abrasive like honing
for cylindrical surfaces or a cup wheel for flat
surfaces.
 It is generally used for:
 Removing surface fragmentation.
 Reduce surface stresses and burns and thus
restore surface integrity.
 Correct inequalities in geometry.
May 16,
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May 16,
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2019
 Superfinishing an automotive crank (Taft-Pierce
Manufacturing Company).

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Any Questions?

May 16,
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