Mixture of varieties

Karbala university
Code switching , code-
mixing, borrowing, Lecture in
Set by:
poetization and sociolinguistics
creolization Nawfal A. Alsaadi
Mixture of language varieties is now a common
phenomenon

the term varieties of language can be used to refer to

different manifestations of it. According to Hudson
(1996), variety of a language is “a set of linguistic
items with similar distribution
 Definition Code Switching
Wahdani (2010, p. 3) says that code switching is a term in linguistics
referring to using more than one language or dialect in conversation.

Baker and Jones (1998) code-switching is ‘a change of language within a

conversation, most often when bilinguals are in the company of other bilinguals’.

Hoffmann (1991) code-switching is the use of two languages alternatively or using

different varieties in the same language within a conversation.

. Gumperz (1982) as cited in Karjo (2006), code switching is the using of two
languages together alternating in one conversation or speech. On the other hand
 Causal Factors of Code Switching
• Hutabarat (2011, p. 5) says that, there are four casual factors in code
switching:
1. Conversant
A conversant sometimes switches the code with another conversant
because of certain purpose. For example, to change formal situation to
informal situation and in versa.

2. Background of language
If the first conversant and the second conversant have a similar
background of language, they will switch the code in variant switching
form, but if the first conversant and the second conversant have a
different background of language, they will switch the code in language
switching form.
• 3. The appearance of the third conversant
• If the third conversant has the different background of language
with the first and the second conversant, they usually do code
switching to neutralize the situation and to respect the appearance
the third conversant.

• 4. Topic
• Topic is the dominant factor in determining code switching. The
formal topic is usually served in neutral and serious style of language
and informal topic is usually served in relax style of language.
 Types of code switching
• Many attempts have been made to categorize code-
switching within the domain of sociolinguistics.

• Code-switching can be classified in terms of the grammatical/syntactical or

discourse/pragmatic aspects of the shift.

• The difference between the grammatical and pragmatic approach is mainly at The
pragmatic framework assumes that the motivation for switching is basically
stylistic and that code-switching is to be treated as a discourse phenomenon which
cannot be satisfactorily handled in terms of the internal structure of sentences.

• The grammatical perspective is primarily concerned with accounting for the

linguistic constrains on code-switching. Now another classification of code-
switching can be mentioned. According to this classification there are two types of
code-switching: situational and metaphorical
• Situational code-switching
• When people switch one code to another for reasons which can be
identified, it is called situational code-switching. If we knew the
relevant situational or social factors in advance in such case, we
could predict the switches.
• Metaphorical code-switching:
• When a change of topic requires a change in the language use, we have
metaphorical code-switching. In metaphorical code-switching topic change is
occurred. For example, code switching from formal to informal, official to personal,
serious to humorous situation. Again code-switching can be classified as follows;
• Internal code-switching
• External code-switching

• Internal code switching: Internal code switching takes place with a language. It has
two types:
• a. Diglossic code-switching: means where code is switched between a high and low
variety.
• b. Dialectal code-switching: which occurs within two or more dialects?
• External code-switching: occurs within two or more languages simultaneously. It
generally takes place in bilingual situation.
 Code mixing
• Code-mixing is actually the mixing of different varieties of language. It
refers to mixing of two different codes within a sentence.

• Ward augh (1992) defines code–mixing as the deliberate use of two

languages without an associated topic change. It is basically found in
multilingual places. It is closely related to code-switching.

• Code–mixing does not necessarily result in a change of topic or section.

It occurs when conversant use both languages together to the extent that
they change from one language to the other in the course of a single
utterance. This kind of alteration is called code–mixing.
• The purpose of code–mixing seems to symbolize a somewhat ambiguous
situation for which neither language on its own would be quite right.

• To get the right effect the speakers balance the two languages, then a few
words of the other, and then back to the first for a few more words and so
on. The changes generally take place more or less randomly as far as
subject-matter is concerned, but they seem to be limited by the sentence-
structure.
• Code–mixing involves mixing of:
•
• A). Two languages
• B). Two or more languages
• C). Two or more diglossic varieties
• There are two types of code–mixing:
• a. Intra-sentential code–mixing
• b. Inter-sentential code–mixing
• Intra sentential code-mixing: Intra-sentential code–mixing takes
place within sentence or clause or word boundaries with no
apparent change in topic. An Intra-sentential code–mixing can occur
in three processes:-
• Firstly, noun insertion: This code mixing involves the mixing of noun
in one code in a sentence which is another code.
• Secondly, Verb insertion: This code mixing involves the mixing of
verb in a sentence from one code and remaining parts are from
another code.
• Inter-sentential code-mixing: Inter sentential code-mixing takes
place if one informant is asked to describe an
incident she/he begins to describe it in her/his standard
language and switches to his second language and then completes it
in his local variety.
• Code-switching and code-mixing occur in all linguistic situations.
These two occur frequently in multilingual, bilingual and even in
monolingual countries.
 Borrowing
• The process of borrowing is another way in which different languages
may become mixed up with each other. Code- borrowing involves
mixing the language system themselves because an item is ‘borrowed’
from one language to become part of the other language.

• According to Spolsky (1998), ‘the integration of a word from one

language into another’ is the classical borrowing case. In this regard,
Bloomfield (1935) stated that the adoption ‘of features which differ
from those of the main tradition is linguistic borrowing.’
• According to Spolsky (1998), ‘the integration of a word from one language
into another’ is the classical borrowing case. In this regard, Bloomfield
(1935) stated that the adoption ‘of features which differ from those of the
main tradition is linguistic borrowing.’

• There are also a number of borrowed words in English from other

languages which are borrowing only in the historical sense, and which
ordinary people no longer associate with any other language.

• English language has borrowed words from Latin, Greek and French which
constitute more than half of its vocabulary. Words like money, car and
letter can be traced as borrowings from these languages.
• As the concept of the particular kind of foods that can be termed as
fast foods are very much western, no Bangla equivalent words could
possible imply the same sense. Again, many English words have crept
into the everyday language of Bangladeshi people. For example, table,
chair, cup, mobile etc. These are borrowed words from English to
Bangla, but none of us are aware of this and use it just like any other
Bangla word.
• Pidginisation & Creolisation
• When French became the new language of parliament in England in
1066, it was a lingua franca: the vernacular was still English, but in
order to communicate, people spoke French, or sometimes Latin.
• Much later, during the colonial period, lingua francas were needed
again; this time to for communication between the colonisers and the
locals.
• The main difference between these two scenarios is that in the
second, a pidgin was created. A pidgin is a language used primarily
for communication between two groups with no common language.
• It is thought that the reason behind this is that there were two
languages involved after the Norman conquest (French and English),
whereas in order to create a pidgin, three languages are needed.
Because of the nature of many countries being colonised at the time,
there were often three languages: English, and two local dialects. This
is essential, because the locals must communicate in the pidgin in
order to understand one another.
•
• Pidginisation involves a superstrate language and a substrate. The
superstrate is the language of power: whoever the coloniser is has
money, weapons, and more than a pinch of arrogance, so the
superstrate is commonly English, French, Spanish, Portuguese,
Dutch, or German. The substrates are usually the local languages.

• A pidgin language takes the majority of its vocabulary of the

superstrate, and the grammar and pronunciation of the substrate. All
of these are massively simplified: the language is one of necessity; it
isn’t used for discussing the finer points of Shakespeare, but for
negotiating the price of tea.
• For example, in Tok Pisin, the word for anything that grows is gras,
from the English grass. The Patwa for bird is bud, with the difficult
consonant cluster ‘rd’ removed. Difficult sounds, such as the sounds
which children acquire last, are often removed in pidgin languages.

• ‘Ten thousand years ago’ in Patwa is ‘ten tauzin yiers ago’: the ‘th’ is
removed, as is the diphthong in years (rather that fitting two sounds
into the word, the Patwa adds another syllable so it is pronounced
ye-ahs). As you can see, pidgins are spelled as they are pronounced.
No pesky silent letters or letters which can be pronounced in a
number of different way depending on where they are in the word.
English actually has a lot to learn from these languages…