Overview

• Energy transformation into electrical form

• Generation operation
– Revolving magnetic field
– Phasor diagram
– Equivalent Circuit
– Power relationships
– Generator pull-out power
• Excitation control
• Turbine speed control
 Energy Transformation
• Transformation processes:
– Chemical
– photovoltaic
– electromechanical
• Electromechanical: conversion of energy from
coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium, water flow,
geothermal, and wind into electrical energy
• Turbine-synchronous AC generator conversion
process most common in industry today
 Feedback Control Systems for
Synchronous Generators
• Turbine-generator basic form

• Governor and excitation systems are known as

feedback control systems; they control the speed
and voltage respectively
 Synchronous Machine Structure
STATOR
ROTOR
+ (armature
(field
N winding)
winding)

DC +
Voltage

S
The negative terminal
for each phase is +
180 degrees from A Two Pole Machine (p=2)
the corresponding Salient Pole Structure
positive terminal.
 Synchronous Machine Structure

N N

S S

S N

Two-pole Four-pole
Salient pole construction Salient pole construction
 Stator
Air gap
Rotor

Salient Pole Smooth rotor

Construction Construction
Also known as round rotor
or cylindrical rotor
construction
Synchronous Machine Structure

S S

N
A Four Pole Machine (p=4)
(Salient Pole Structure)
 Generation Operation
• The generator is classified as a synchronous
machine because it is only at synchronous speed
that it can develop electromagnetic torque
• p = number of poles on the rotor of the machine
• e  2f = electrical speed (frequency) in rad/sec
2
•  m   e  = mechanical speed in rad/sec
p • p=2: 1 mechanical rotation gives 1 electrical rotation.
p
e  m 
2
• p=4: 1 mechanical rotation gives 2 electrical rotations.

• p=6: 1 mechanical rotation gives 3 electrical rotations.

• …

• N    rad
s m 
1rev
sec 2 rad

60sec
m
min
  e
30  2  30  2
  
 p  p
 30 120
  2 f 


p
f = machine speed in RPM
 For 60 Hz operation (f=60)

• Synchronous generator

Rotor construction

Round Rotor Salient Pole

•
•
Two pole •
•
Ns = 3600 rpm
•

•
•
Ns = 1800 rpm
Four Pole
•
•
•

Ns = 900 rpm
Eight Pole
 For 60 Hz operation (f=60)

No. of Poles (p) Synchronous speed (Ns)

------------------- -----------------------------
2 Few polesHigh speed 3600
4 1800
6 1200
8 120 900
Ns  f
10 p 720
12 600
14 514
16 450
18 400
20 Many polesSlow speed 360
Fact: hydro turbines are slow speed,
steam turbines are high speed.

Do hydro-turbine generators have few poles or many?

Many, because they rotate slowly.
Do steam-turbine generators have few poles or many?
Few, because they rotate very fast.

Fact: salient pole incurs significant

mechanical stress at high speed.

Do steam-turbine generators have salient poles or smooth?

Smooth, because salient pole creates too much
mechanical stress at high speed.
Fact: Salient pole rotors are cheaper to build than smooth.

Do hydro-turbine generators have salient poles or smooth?

Salient, because it is cheaper.
 Generation Operation
• A magnetic field is provided by the DC-current
carrying field winding which induces the desired
AC voltage in the armature winding
• Field winding is always located on the rotor where
it is connected to an external DC source via slip
rings and brushes or to a revolving DC source via
a special brushless configuration
• Armature winding is located on the stator where
there is no rotation
• The armature consists of three windings all of
which are wound on the stator, physically
displaced from each other by 120 degrees
 Synchronous Machine Structure
• voltage induced in phase
wdgs by flux from
rotating field wdg +
• current in phase wdgs
produces flux that
N
also induces
voltage in phase
wdgs. +
DC
Voltage

S
+
 Rotor
Stator
winding
Brushes
+-

Stator
winding Slip
rings
 Rotating magnetic field
• There are 3 stator windings, separated in space by 120°,
with each carrying AC, separated in time by ω0t=120°.
• Each of these three currents creates a magnetic field in
the air gap of the machine. Let’s look at only the a-phase:
spatial
temporal variation variation
 cos0 t  I a cos 
Ba ( , t )  Bmax

• Ba, in webers/m2, is flux density from the a-phase current

(We could also use Ha, which is magnetic field strength in
amp-turns/m or Oersteds, related to Ba by Ba=μHa)
• α is the spatial angle along the air gap
• For any time t, α=0,180 are spatial maxima (absolute value
of flux is maximum at these points) 16
Rotating magnetic field – temporal characterization
 cos0 t  I a cos 
Ba ( , t )  Bmax

Let’s fix α=0 and see what happens at

ω0t1, such that ω0t1+∟Ia is just less than π/2

ω0t2≈ ω0t1+90, 1 α=0°

t1 4
t2
ω0t3 ≈ ω0t1+180, ?
× × ?

ω0t4 ≈ ω0t1+270
3 2
t3 t4
?
× ? ×

17
Rotating magnetic field – spatial characterization
Now let’s fix t=t4 (ω0t4= ω0t1+270):
 cos 0t4  I a  cos 
Ba ( , t )  Bmax
and see what happens at
α=0, α=45, α=90, α=135, α=180, α=225, α=270, α=315.
α=0°

Radially outward is
α=90° positive; radially
inward is negative.
• ×

α=270°

α=180
°
One observes that the magnetic field is sinusoidally
distributed around the airgap.
18
 Rotating magnetic field
• Now consider the magnetic field from all windings simultaneously.
 cos0 t  I a cos 
Ba ( , t )  Bmax (1)
 2   2 
 cos 0t  I a 
Bb ( , t )  Bmax  cos    (2)
 3   3 
 2   2 
 cos 0t  I a 
Bc ( , t )  Bmax  cos    (3)
 3   3 
• Add them up, then perform trig manipulation to obtain:

cos0t  I a   
3Bmax
Babc ( , t ) 
2 (4)
Notice that locations of the spatial maxima in (1), (2), and (3) do not vary w/time (i.e.,
although the value of the spatial maxima changes, their locations do not), indicated by:
 cos 0t  I a  cos     0,  
Ba ( , t )  Bmax
2  2  2  2 5  The location around the air gap
 cos  0t  I a 
Bb ( , t )  Bmax

 cos        0,       ,  (specified by α), at any given
 3   3  3  3 3  time, for which the field is
2  2  2  2  
 cos  0t  I a 
Bc ( , t )  Bmax

 cos       0,       ,  max, IS NOT a function of t.
 3   3  3  3 3
But the spatial maxima of (4) has spatial location which does vary w/time, This is a
characteristic of a rotating magnetic field.

3Bmax The location around the air gap
Babc ( , t )  cos 0t  I a    (specified by α), at any given
2
 0t  I a    0,      0t  I a , 0t  I a    time, for which the field is
max, IS a function of t.
19
 Rotating magnetic field
One observes this using the following:

http://educypedia.karadimov.info/library/rotating_field.swf

The shape of the individual winding fields Ba, Bb, Bc, throughout the air gap are
spatially fixed, but their amplitudes pulsate up and down.

In contrast, the amplitude of the composite is fixed in time, but it rotates in space.
What you see in the visualization are just the variation of the maximum flux point.

The plot on the middle right, is misleading. It should show a single period of a
sinusoidal waveform rather than a square wave.

20
Equivalent circuit model for synchronous machine
• Each stator winding a,b,c will have a voltage induced in
it proportional to the speed of rotation of the rotor, the
number of turns of the winding N, and the flux produced
by the field winding ϕ.
• Since the speed of rotation of the rotor must equal the
synchronous speed, and since the synchronous speed is
set by the grid frequency f according to NS=120f/p where
p is number of poles, the induced rms voltage will be:
E f  4.44 K w fN
Here, Kw, called the winding factor, is a reduction factor between
0.85 to 0.95 that accounts for the distribution of the armature coils.

We call Ef the excitation voltage because it is produced by the field

which is also known as the machine’s excitation. It is also
sometimes called the “internal voltage” because it is the voltage
measured when the machine is unloaded (open-circuited).
Equivalent circuit model for synchronous machine
• The line-to-neutral rms terminal voltage of the a-phase
winding is given by Vt. We will assume this is the
reference, so that:
Vt  Vt 0
• The excitation voltage is also a phasor, with magnitude
and angle given by:
E f  E f 
• When the machine is unloaded, the terminal voltage
equals the excitation voltage, i.e.,

Vt  E f  E f  Vt ,   0
Equivalent circuit model for synchronous machine
• However, when the machine is loaded, i.e., when there is a
current flowing through the a-phase winding, then the
terminal voltage will differ from the excitation voltage
due to voltage drops caused by:
1. Resistance of the phase winding; we will ignore this.
2. Armature reaction: This is the interaction of the flux
from the (rotating) field winding and the flux from
the a-phase winding current. It tends to decrease the
terminal voltage. It is represented by a reactance Xar.
3. Flux leakage: There is some flux developed by the
field winding which does not link with the armature
winding. This leakage is captured by a reactance Xl.
Vt  E f  j  X ar  X l  I a
• We define the synchronous reactance as Xs=Xar+Xl, so that
Vt  E f  jX s I a
Equivalent circuit model for synchronous machine

Vt  E f  j  X ar  X l  I a

Vt  E f  jX s I a

All voltages and currents on the above diagram are phasors.

Equivalent circuit model for synchronous machine

Ia

jXs

Ef Vt Z

All voltages and currents on the above diagram are phasors.

Equivalent circuit model for synchronous machine

You can perform per-phase equivalent analysis

or you can perform per-unit analysis.

In per-phase, Ef and Vt are both line to neutral voltages,

Ia is the line current, and Z is the impedance of the
equivalent Y-connected load.

In per-unit, Ef and Vt are per-unit voltages,

Ia is the per unit current, and Z is the per unit load
impedance.
Leading and Lagging Generator Operation

Let Z  R  jX | Z |  , Vt  Vt V

From the equivalent circuit,

Vt Vt V Vt
Ia    (V   )
Z | Z |  | Z |

So here we see that  i  V      V   i

Leading and Lagging Generator Operation

Assign Vt as the reference: V  0

Then,
Vt V V
Ia   t (V   )  t ( )
Z |Z | |Z |

So here we see that  i  

This gives an easy way to remember the relation
between load, sign of current angle, leading/lagging,
and sign of power angle.
Leading and Lagging Generator Operation
Circle the correct answer in each
of the six rows for each column

Inductive load Capacitive load

----------------------------------------------------------------
load absorbs/supplies Q load absorbs/supplies Q
gen absorbs/supplies Q gen supplies/absorbs Q
X ?0 X ?0
 ?0  ?0
i  ?  0 i  ?  0
current is leading/lagging current is leading/lagging
Leading and Lagging Generator Operation

Answers

Inductive load Capacitive load

----------------------------------------------------------------
load absorbs/supplies Q load absorbs/supplies Q
gen absorbs/supplies Q gen absorbs/supplies Q
X ?0 X ?0
 ?0  ?0
i  ?  0 i  ?  0
current is leading/lagging current is leading/lagging
Equivalent circuit model for synchronous machine

Ia

jXs

Ef Vt Z

From KVL: E f  Vt  jX s I a
Phasor Diagram for Equivalent Circuit
E f  Vt  jX s I a
This equation gives directions for
constructing the phasor diagram.
1. Draw Vt phasor
2. Draw Ia phasor Ef
3. Scale Ia phasor magnitude by Xs and jXsIa
rotate it by 90 degrees.
4. Add scaled and rotated vector
jXsIa
to Vt
Vt
Try it for lagging case. Ia
XsIa
Phasor Diagram for Equivalent Circuit

E f  Vt  jX s I a

This equation gives directions for jXsIa

constructing the phasor diagram. jXsIa
1. Draw Vt phasor Ef
2. Draw Ia phasor
3. Scale Ia phasor magnitude by Xs and Ia
rotate it by 90 degrees. Vt
4. Add scaled and rotated vector
to Vt
You do it for leading case.

Question: What does the condition (leading or lagging)

imply about the magnitude of the internal voltage Ef.
Phasor Diagram for Equivalent Circuit

E f  Vt  jX s I a

Let’s define the angle that Ef makes with Vt as 

E f  E f 

For generator operation (power supplied by machine),

this angle is always positive.

For motor operation, this angle is negative.