BITS Pilani

Pilani Campus

RKTiwary
WMC-Introductory
Overview of Wireless Communications

 The number of mobile phone users in the world is expected to

pass the five billion mark by 2019.
 In 2016, an estimated 62.9 percent of the population
worldwide already owned a mobile phone.
 Cellular systems have experienced exponential growth over
the last decade
 The explosive growth of wireless systems coupled with the
proliferation of laptop and palmtop computers indicate a
bright future for wireless networks,
 we will
 briefly review the history of wireless networks
 discuss the wireless vision in more detail including the
technical challenges
 The gap between current and emerging systems
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
History of Wireless Communications
 The first wireless networks were developed in the Pre-
industrial age
 line-of-sight distances (later extended by telescopes)
 methodology Eg.
 using smoke
 torch signaling
 flashing mirrors,
 Observation stations were built on hilltops and along roads
 were replaced first by the telegraph network (invented
by Samuel Morse in 1838) and later by the telephone
 In 1895, Marconi demonstrated the first radio transmission
 Radio technology advanced rapidly to enable transmissions
over larger distances

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

radio systems
 Early radio systems transmitted analog signals
 transmit digital signals
 radio can transmit a continuous bit stream or it can group the
bits into packets called a packet radio
 first network based on packet radio, ALOHANET
 introduction of wired Ethernet technology in the 1970’s
steered many commercial companies away from radio-based
networking
 Federal Communications Commission (FCC) enabled the
commercial development of wireless LANs
 Allowed Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) frequency
bands for wireless LAN
 the data rates are still low tens of Mbps coverage area is still
small (around 150 m)
 Wired Ethernets today offer data rates of 100 Mbps
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Wireless Networks

Networking Basics
 Two or more connected devices

 People can share files, peripherals such as

modems, printers and CD-ROM drives etc.

 When networks at multiple locations are

connected, people can send e-mail, share links
to the global internet or conduct video
conferences in real time with other remote
users.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Networking Components

 At least two computers

 A network interface on each computer (a device

that lets the computer talk to the network) usually
an NIC or adapter.

 A connection medium usually a wire or cable in

case of wired and atmosphere or air in case of
wireless communication.

 Network operating system software, such as MS

Windows 95, NT, AppleShare.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Wireless Comes of Age

Guglielmo Marconi invented the wireless telegraph

in 1896
▪ Communication by encoding alphanumeric characters in
analog signal
▪ Sent telegraphic signals across the Atlantic Ocean , 3200
km
Communications satellites launched in 1960s

Advances in wireless technology have led to

▪ Radio, television, mobile telephone, communication
satellites
More recent attention on
▪ Satellite communications, wireless networking, cellular
technology
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Transmission Fundamentals

Electromagnetic Signal

Function of time
 Can also be expressed as a function of
frequency

 Signal consists of components of different

frequencies

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Time-Domain Concepts

Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth

fashion over time
 No breaks or discontinuities in the signal

 Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a

constant level for some period of time and then
changes to another constant level

 Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern

that repeats over time
s(t +T ) = s(t ) - ∞< t < +∞
where T is the period of the signal

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Analog and Digital Waveforms

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Time-Domain Concepts

 Aperiodic signal - analog or digital signal

pattern that doesn't repeat over time

 Peak amplitude (A) - maximum value or

strength of the signal over time; typically
measured in volts

 Frequency (f )
 Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) at which
the signal repeats

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Time-Domain Concepts

 Period (T ) - amount of time it takes for one

repetition of the signal
 T = 1/f
 Phase () - measure of the relative position
in time within a single period of a signal
 Wavelength () - distance occupied by a
single cycle of the signal
 Or, the distance between two points of
corresponding phase of two consecutive cycles
𝑐
 𝜆= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝑓

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Examples of Periodic Signals

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Sine Wave Parameters

General sine wave

 s(t ) = A sin(2ft + )
 Figure 2 shows the effect of varying each of the three
parameters

 (a) A = 1, f = 1 Hz,  = 0; thus T = 1s

 (b) Reduced peak amplitude; A=0.5
 (c) Increased frequency; f = 2, thus T = ½
 (d) Phase shift;  = /4 radians (45 degrees)
note: 2 radians = 360° = 1 period

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s(t ) = A sin(2ft + ) Fig-2

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Matlab Example

Eg1
A= 1; f=1; t= 0:0.01:5; x=0;
s = A *sin(2*pi*f*t + x); Eg3
Plot(t,s) A= 1; f=0.5; t= 0:0.01:5; x=0;
s = A *sin(2*pi*f*t + x);
Eg2 figure
A= 0.5; plot(t,s)
figure
s = A *sin(2*pi*f*t + x);
Eg 4
plot(t,s)
A= 1; f=0.5; t= 0:0.01:5; x=45;
s = A *sin(2*pi*f*t + x);
figure
plot(t,s)

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Time vs. Distance

When the horizontal axis is time, as in Figure 2,

graphs display the value of a signal at a given
point in space as a function of time
With the horizontal axis in space, graphs
display the value of a signal at a given point in
time as a function of distance

▪ At a particular instant of time, the intensity of the signal

varies as a function of distance from the source

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Frequency-Domain Concepts
 Fundamental frequency - when all frequency
components of a signal are integer multiples of one
frequency, it’s referred to as the fundamental
frequency

 Spectrum - range of frequencies that a signal

contains

 Absolute bandwidth - width of the spectrum of a

signal

 Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth) - narrow

band of frequencies that most of the signal’s
energy is contained in
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Frequency-Domain Concepts

 Any electromagnetic signal can be

shown to consist of a collection of
periodic analog signals (sine waves) at
different amplitudes, frequencies, and
phases

 The period of the total signal is equal

to the period of the fundamental
frequency

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Wave Analysis
The French mathematician Fourier

In general, any periodic waveform f(t) can be expressed as

Or
1
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑎 + σ∞
1 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡
2 0

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Wave Analysis
The coefficients a0,an , and bn are found from the
following relations

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Addition of Frequency Components (T = l/f)

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Addition of Frequency Components (T = l/f)

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Trigonometric Fourier Series for Square
Waveform as odd function

we will assume that ω =1

𝐴
= (sin 𝑛𝜋 − 0 − sin 2𝑛𝜋 − sin 𝑛𝜋) = 0
𝑛𝜋

𝐴 𝐴
= (− cos 𝑛𝜋 + 1 + cos 2𝑛𝜋 − cos 𝑛𝜋) = (1 − 2 cos 𝑛𝜋 + cos 2𝑛𝜋)
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Trigonometric Fourier Series for Square
Waveform as odd function
𝐴 𝐴
𝑏𝑛 = (− cos 𝑛𝜋 + 1 + cos 2𝑛𝜋 − cos 𝑛𝜋) = (1 − 2 cos 𝑛𝜋 + cos 2𝑛𝜋)
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋

For n = even 𝐴
𝑏𝑛 = 1−2+1 =0
𝑛𝜋

For n = Odd 𝐴 4𝐴
𝑏𝑛 = 1+2+1 =
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋

4𝐴 4𝐴 4𝐴
and thus 𝑏1 = ; 𝑏3 = ; 𝑏5 = ; ……
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋

Therefore, the trigonometric Fourier series for the square waveform with odd
symmetry is

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Matlab Example
EG1 EG2:
t= 0:0.01:5; x=(4/pi)*[sin(2*pi*1*t)+1/3*sin(2*pi*3*t)+1/5*sin(2*p
x= (4/pi)*[sin(2*pi*1*t)]; i*5*t)];
plot(t,x) figure
plot(t,x)

Eg 3
x=(4/pi)*[sin(2*pi*1*t)+1/3*sin(2*pi*3*t)+1/5*sin(2*pi*5*t)+1/7*sin(2*pi*7*t)+1/9*sin(2*
pi*9*t)+1/11*sin(2*pi*11*t)];
figure
plot(t,x)

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Relationship between Data Rate and Bandwidth

 The greater the bandwidth, the higher the information-

carrying capacity
 Conclusions

 Any digital waveform will have infinite bandwidth

 BUT the transmission system will limit the bandwidth that can
be transmitted

 AND, for any given medium, the greater the bandwidth

transmitted, the greater the cost

 HOWEVER, limiting the bandwidth creates distortions

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Data Communication Terms

Data - entities that convey meaning, or

information

Signals - electric or electromagnetic

representations of data

Transmission - communication of data by

the propagation and processing of signals

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Examples of Analog and Digital Data

Analog
–Video
–Audio
Digital
–Text
–Integers

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Analog Signals

 A continuously varying electromagnetic wave

that may be propagated over a variety of
media, depending on frequency
 Examples of media:
–Copper wire media (twisted pair and coaxial
cable)
–Fiber optic cable
–Atmosphere or space propagation
 Analog signals can propagate analog and
digital data

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Digital Signals

 A sequence of voltage pulses that may be

transmitted over a copper wire medium
 Generally cheaper than analog signaling
 Less susceptible to noise interference
 Suffer more from attenuation
 Digital signals can propagate analog and
digital data

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Modem stands for Modulator /DEModulator. A modem converts digital signals
generated by the computer into analog signals which can be transmitted over a
telephone or cable line and transforms incoming analog signals into their digital
equivalents.
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Codec is short for "coder-decoder." It is an algorithm used to encode data, such as
an audio or video clip. The encoded data must be decoded when played back.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Reasons for Choosing Data and Signal Combinations
 Digital data, digital signal
– Equipment for encoding is less expensive than digital-to-analog
equipment

 Analog data, digital signal

– Conversion permits use of modern digital transmission and
switching equipment

 Digital data, analog signal

– Some transmission media will only propagate analog signals
– Examples include optical fiber and satellite
 Analog data, analog signal
– Analog data easily converted to analog signal

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Analog Transmission
 Transmit analog signals without regard to content
 Attenuation limits length of transmission link
 Cascaded amplifiers boost signal’s energy for longer
distances but cause distortion
– Analog data can tolerate distortion
– Introduces errors in digital data

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Digital Transmission

 Concerned with the content of the signal

 Attenuation endangers integrity of data
 Digital Signal
– Repeaters achieve greater distance
– Repeaters recover the signal and retransmit
 Analog signal carrying digital data
– Retransmission device recovers the digital data from analog
signal
– Generates new, clean analog signal

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About Channel Capacity

 Impairments, such as noise, limit data rate that can

be achieved

 For digital data, to what extent do impairments limit

data rate?

 Channel Capacity – the maximum rate at which data

can be transmitted over a given communication path,
or channel, under given conditions

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Concepts Related to Channel Capacity

 Data rate - rate at which data can be communicated (bps)

 Bandwidth - the bandwidth of the transmitted signal as

constrained by the transmitter and the nature of the
transmission medium (Hertz)

 Noise - average level of noise over the communications

path

 Error rate - rate at which errors occur

– Error = transmit 1 and receive 0; transmit 0 and receive 1

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Nyquist Bandwidth
In signal processing, the Nyquist rate, named after Harry Nyquist,
is twice the bandwidth of a bandlimited function or a bandlimited
channel.
 For binary signals (two voltage levels)
– C = 2B
– B is Bandwidth
– for a B= 3100 Hz the data rate= 6100 bps
 In a noise free channel the limitation on data rate (bps) is
only Bandwidth of the channel
 With multilevel signaling
– C = 2B log2 M
– M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
– For M=4 we have C= 12,400 bps

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Signal-to-Noise Ratio

 Ratio of the power in a signal to the power contained in

the noise that’s present at a particular point in the
transmission
 Typically measured at a receiver

 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, or S/N)

signal power
( SNR) dB  10 log 10
noise power

 A high SNR means a high-quality signal, low number of

required intermediate repeaters
 SNR sets upper bound on achievable data rate

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Effect of Noise on a Digital Signal

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Shannon Capacity Formula
 Equation:
C  B log 2 1  SNR

Represents theoretical maximum that can be achieved

In practice, only much lower rates achieved
This represents error free capacity

– Formula assumes white noise (thermal noise)

– Impulse noise is not accounted for
– Attenuation distortion or delay distortion not accounted for
Thermal noise is generated naturally by thermal agitation of electrons in a
conductor commonly found in opto-electronic devices. ...
In communication, thermal noise has a major influence to the quality of
the receiver. The lower the thermal noise the higher and more expensive is
receiver sensitivity.
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Example of Nyquist and Shannon Formulations

Spectrum of a channel between 3 MHz and 4 MHz ; SNRdB = 24

dB
Bandwith ?
B  4 MHz  3 MHz  1 MHz
SNR dB  24 dB  10 log 10 SNR 
SNR  251

Using Shannon’s formula Capacity =?

C  10  log 2 1  251  10  8  8Mbps
6 6

log2 x = (log10 x)/(log10 2)

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Example of Nyquist and Shannon Formulations

How many signaling levels are required?

C  2 B log 2 M
 
8 106  2  106  log 2 M
4  log 2 M
M  16
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑀
= 4 ⇒ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑀= 4 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2 = 1.20
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 2
Thus M= 16

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Exercise to explore

A typical voice channel has SNR as 30dB and bandwidth as

2.7KHz.
What will be the maximum information capacity of the channel ?

Ans: 26.9 Kbps

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Example
Given a channel with an intended capacity of 20 Mbps, the bandwidth
of the channel is 3 MHz.
What signal-to-noise ratio is required to achieve this capacity?

log2 x = (log10 x)/(log10 2) C  B log 2 1  SNR

C = B log2 (1 + SNR)
20 × 106 = 3 × 106 × log2(1 + SNR)
log2(1 + SNR) = 6.67

log10(1 + SNR) / log102= 6.67 ; log102= 0.30

1 + SNR = 102
SNR = 101
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Classifications of Transmission Media
Transmission Medium

▪ Physical path between transmitter and receiver

Guided Media
▪ Waves are guided along a solid medium
▪ E.g., copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable,
optical fiber

Unguided Media
▪ Provides means of transmission but does not guide
electromagnetic signals
▪ Usually referred to as wireless transmission
▪ E.g., atmosphere, outer space
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Unguided Media

Transmission and reception are achieved by

means of an antenna
Configurations for wireless transmission
▪ Directional
▪ Omnidirectional

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General Frequency Ranges

Microwave frequency range

▪ 1 GHz to 100 GHz
▪ Directional beams possible
▪ Suitable for point-to-point transmission
▪ Used for satellite communications
Radio frequency range
▪ 30 MHz to 1 GHz
▪ Suitable for omnidirectional applications
Infrared frequency range
▪ Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz
▪ Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications
within confined areas
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Terrestrial Microwave

Description of common microwave antenna

▪ Parabolic "dish", 3 m in diameter
▪ Fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam
▪ Achieves line-of-sight transmission to receiving
antenna
▪ Located at substantial heights above ground level

Applications
▪ Long haul telecommunications service
▪ Short point-to-point links between buildings

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Satellite Microwave
Description of communication satellite

▪ Microwave relay station

▪ Used to link two or more ground-based microwave
transmitter/receivers
▪ Receives transmissions on one frequency band
(uplink), amplifies or repeats the signal, and transmits
it on another frequency (downlink)

Applications
▪ Television distribution
▪ Long-distance telephone transmission
▪ Private business networks

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

the amount of attenuation due to distance for radio
4𝜋𝑑 2
obeys 𝐿 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 dB.
𝜆
Because of the longer wavelength, radio waves suffer relatively less
attenuation

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Multiplexing

Capacity of transmission medium usually

exceeds capacity required for transmission of a
single signal

Multiplexing - carrying multiple signals on a

single medium
▪ More efficient use of transmission medium

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Multiplexing

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Introduction to Frequency Division Multiplexing

FDM or Frequency Division Multiplexing is a networking method

of sharing the total available bandwidth of any communication
channel by diving them into many non-overlapping bands of
frequency.

Working Principle

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FDM Receivers

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Guard Band

Frequency overlap is a serious issue when it comes to frequency

division multiplexing and it must be completely avoided. Two
frequency ranges can be separated by using some narrow
frequency ranges called guard bands. The guard bands avoid
signal interference and enhance the quality of communication.

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Disadvantages of FDM.
All the frequency division multiplexing channels get
affected due to wideband fading.
A large number of modulators and filters are
required.
The communication channel must have a very
large bandwidth.

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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

TDM is the time interleaving of samples from several sources so

that the information from these sources can be transmitted serially
over a single communication channel

Working
In TDM " a channel ki is given the whole bandwidth for a certain amount of time"
i.e. all senders use the same frequency but at different point in time

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time division multiplexing
advantages of time division multiplexing
 Time division multiplexing systems are more flexible
than frequency division multiplexing.
 Time division multiplexing circuitry is not complex.
 Problem of cross talk is not severe

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Combination of both FDM & TDM for
GSM

Frequency and time division multiplexing combined

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
To explore

Why do paging systems need to provide low data rates? How

does a low data rate lead to better coverage?
 For paging system small RF bandwidths are used to maximize the signal-to-
noise ratio at each paging receiver, so low data rates (6400 bps or less) are
used.
 Simulcasting is used in paging systems to achieve better coverage.
 Simulcast is a simultaneous broadcast of page by a number of transmitters on
a single radio frequency.
 These simultaneous broadcasts from multiple transmitters can have
overlapping areas.
 So lower the data rate better the coverage in overlapping areas.
 Paging systems are designed to provide reliable communication to
subscribers wherever they are; whether inside a building, driving on a
highway, or flying in an airplane.
 This necessitates large transmitter powers (on the order of kilowatts) and low
data rates (a couple of thousand bits per second) for maximum coverage from
each base station
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
 sin(2πt)

Asin(2πft+) ?

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A digital signaling system is required to operate at 9600 bps.
If a signal element encodes a 4-bit word, what is the minimum
required bandwidth of the channel?

Using Nyquist's equation: C = 2B log2M

We have C = 9600 bps
log2M = 4, because a signal element encodes a 4-bit word
Therefore, C = 9600 = 2B × 4, and
B = 1200 Hz

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Fifth generation or 5G
 New Radio (NR) is the air interface supporting the next
generation of mobile communication, commonly referred
to as fifth generation or 5G.
 The predecessors of 5G NR are GSM, UMTS, and LTE,
also referred to as second generation (2G), third
generation (3G), and fourth generation (4G) technologies,
respectively. GSM primarily enabled voice calls.
 The redesigned interfaces of UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System )and LTE ( Long Term
Evolution )enabled and gradually improved mobile
broadband connectivity with high data rates and high
efficiency.
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Fifth generation or 5G
 5G NR continues on the path of LTE by enabling
much higher data rates and much higher efficiency
for mobile broadband. However, as a response to
the demands of networked society, the scope of 5G
NR goes beyond mobile broadband connectivity.

 The main requirement of 5G NR is to

enable wireless connectivity everywhere, at any
time to anyone and anything.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Comparison of 1G to 5G technologies

access, variable
devices
with AI capabilities

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Given the narrow (usable) audio bandwidth of a telephone
transmission facility, a nominal SNR of 56dB (400,000), and a
distortion level of <0.2%,
a. What is the theoretical maximum channel capacity (Kbps) of
traditional telephone lines?
b. What is the actual maximum channel capacity?

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956