Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design

 2.1 General Considerations

 2.2 Effects of Nonlinearity
 2.3 Noise
 2.4 Sensitivity and Dynamic Range
 2.5 Passive Impedance Transformation
 2.6 Scattering Parameters
 2.7 Analysis of Nonlinear Dynamic Systems
 2.8 Volterra Series

1
Behzad Razavi, RF Microelectronics. Prepared by Bo Wen, UCLA
 Chapter Outline

Nonlinearity
Noise
Impedance
 Harmonic Distortion Transformation
 Compression  Noise Spectrum
 Intermodulation  Device Noise  Series-Parallel
 Dynamic Nonlinear  Noise in Circuits Conversion
Systems  Matching Networks
 S-Parameter

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 2

 General Considerations: Units in RF Design

 This relationship between Power and

Voltage only holds when the input and
output impedance are equal

An amplifier senses a sinusoidal signal and delivers a power of 0 dBm to a load

resistance of 50 Ω. Determine the peak-to-peak voltage swing across the load.

Solution:

where RL= 50 Ω thus,

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 3
 Example of Units in RF

A GSM receiver senses a narrowband (modulated) signal having a level of -100

dBm. If the front-end amplifier provides a voltage gain of 15 dB, calculate the
peak-to-peak voltage swing at the output of the amplifier.

Solution:

Since the amplifier output voltage swing is of interest, we first convert the received signal
level to voltage. From the previous example, we note that -100 dBm is 100 dB below 632
mVpp. Also, 100 dB for voltage quantities is equivalent to 105. Thus, -100 dBm is equivalent
to 6.32 μVpp. This input level is amplified by 15 dB (≈ 5.62), resulting in an output swing of
35.5 μVpp.

 Output voltage of the amplifier is of interest in this example

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 4

 dBm Used at Interfaces Without Power Transfer

 dBm can be used at interfaces that do not necessarily entail power transfer
 We mentally attach an ideal voltage buffer to node X and drive a 50-Ω load. We
then say that the signal at node X has a level of 0 dBm, tacitly meaning that if
this signal were applied to a 50-Ω load, then it would deliver 1 mW.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 5

 General Considerations: Time Variance

 A system is linear if its output can be expressed as a linear combination

(superposition) of responses to individual inputs.

 A system is time-invariant if a time shift in its input results in the same time
shift in its output.

If y(t) = f [x(t)]

then y(t-τ) = f [x(t-τ)]

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 6

 Comparison: Time Variance and Nonlinearity

time variance plays a critical role and must not be confused with nonlinearity:

Nonlinear Linear
Time Variant Time Variant

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 7

 Example of Time Variance

Plot the output waveform of the circuit above if vin1 = A1 cos ω1t and vin2 = A2
cos(1.25ω1t).

Solution:

As shown above, vout tracks vin2 if vin1 > 0 and is pulled down to zero by R1 if vin1 < 0. That is,
vout is equal to the product of vin2 and a square wave toggling between 0 and 1.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 8

 Time Variance: Generation of Other Frequency
Components

 A linear system can generate frequency components that do not exist in the
input signal when system is time variant

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 9

 Nonlinearity: Memoryless and Static System

linear

nonlinear

 The input/output characteristic of a memoryless nonlinear system can be

approximated with a polynomial

 In this idealized case, the circuit displays only second-order nonlinearity

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 10

 Example of Polynomial Approximation

For square-law MOS transistors operating in saturation, the characteristic above

can be expressed as

If the differential input is small, approximate the characteristic by a polynomial.

Factoring 4Iss / (μnCoxW/L) out of the

square root and assuming

Approximation gives us:

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 11

 Effects of Nonlinearity: Harmonic Distortion

Linear Time-invariant Linear Time-variant

 The output of a “dynamic” system depends on the past values of its
input/output

DC Fundamental Second Third

Harmonic Harmonic
 Even-order harmonics result from αj with even j
 nth harmonic grows in proportion to An
Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 12
 Example of Harmonic Distortion in Mixer

An analog multiplier “mixes” its two inputs below, ideally producing y(t) =
kx1(t)x2(t), where k is a constant. Assume x1(t) = A1 cos ω1t and x2(t) = A2 cos ω2t.
(a) If the mixer is ideal, determine the output frequency components.
(b) If the input port sensing x2(t) suffers from third-order nonlinearity, determine
the output frequency components.

Solution:

(a)

(b)

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 13

 Example of Harmonics on GSM Signal

The transmitter in a 900-MHz GSM cellphone delivers 1 W of power to the antenna.

Explain the effect of the harmonics of this signal.

Solution:

The second harmonic falls within another GSM cellphone band around 1800 MHz and must
be sufficiently small to negligibly impact the other users in that band. The third, fourth, and
fifth harmonics do not coincide with any popular bands but must still remain below a certain
level imposed by regulatory organizations in each country. The sixth harmonic falls in the 5-
GHz band used in wireless local area networks (WLANs), e.g., in laptops. Figure below
summarizes these results.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 14

 Gain Compression– Sign of α1, α3

Expansive Compressive

 Most RF circuit of interest are compressive, we focus on this type.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 15

 Gain Compression: 1-dB Compression Point

 Output falls below its ideal value by 1 dB at the 1-dB compression point
 Peak value instead of peak-to-peak value

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 16

 Gain Compression: Effect on FM and AM Waveforms

 FM signal carries no information in its amplitude and hence tolerates

compression.
 AM contains information in its amplitude, hence distorted by compression

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 17

 Gain Compression: Desensitization

For A1 << A2

 Desensitization: the receiver gain is reduced by the large excursions produced

by the interferer even though the desired signal itself is small.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 18

 Example of Gain Compression

A 900-MHz GSM transmitter delivers a power of 1 W to the antenna. By how much

must the second harmonic of the signal be suppressed (filtered) so that it does
not desensitize a 1.8-GHz receiver having P1dB = -25 dBm? Assume the receiver is
1 m away and the 1.8-GHz signal is attenuated by 10 dB as it propagates across
this distance.

Solution:
The output power at 900 MHz is equal to +30 dBm. With an attenuation of 10 dB, the second
harmonic must not exceed -15 dBm at the transmitter antenna so that it is below P1dB of the
receiver. Thus, the second harmonic must remain at least 45 dB below the fundamental at
the TX output. In practice, this interference must be another several dB lower to ensure the
RX does not compress.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 19

 Effects of Nonlinearity: Cross Modulation

Suppose that the interferer is an amplitude-modulated signal

Thus

 Desired signal at output suffers from amplitude modulation

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 20

 Example of Cross Modulation

Suppose an interferer contains phase modulation but not amplitude modulation.

Does cross modulation occur in this case?

Solution:
Expressing the input as:
where the second term represents the interferer (A2 is constant but Φ varies with time)

We now note that (1) the second-order term yields components at ω1 ± ω2 but not at ω1; (2)
the third-order term expansion gives 3α3A1 cos ω1t A22 cos2(ω2t+Φ), which results in a
component at ω1. Thus,

The desired signal at ω1 does not experience cross modulation

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 21
 Effects of Nonlinearity: Intermodulation— Recall
Previous Discussion

So far we have considered the case of:

 Single Signal Harmonic distortion

 Signal + one large interferer Desensitization

 Signal + two large interferers Intermodulation

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 22

 Effects of Nonlinearity: Intermodulation
assume

Thus

Intermodulation products:

Fundamental components:

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 23

 Intermodulation Product Falling on Desired Channel

Interferer

desired

 A received small desired signal along with two large interferers

 Intermodulation product falls onto the desired channel, corrupts signal.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 24

 Example of Intermodulation

Suppose four Bluetooth users operate in a room as shown in figure below. User 4
is in the receive mode and attempts to sense a weak signal transmitted by User 1
at 2.410 GHz. At the same time, Users 2 and 3 transmit at 2.420 GHz and 2.430 GHz,
respectively. Explain what happens.

Solution:

Since the frequencies transmitted by Users 1, 2, and 3 happen to be equally spaced, the
intermodulation in the LNA of RX4 corrupts the desired signal at 2.410 GHz.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 25

 Intermodulation: Tones and Modulated Interferers

 In intermodulation Analyses:
(a) approximate the interferers with tones
(b) calculate the level of intermodulation products at the output
(c) mentally convert the intermodulation tones back to modulated components
so as to see the corruption.
Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 26
 Example of Gain Compression and Intermodulation

A Bluetooth receiver employs a low-noise amplifier having a gain of 10 and an

input impedance of 50 Ω. The LNA senses a desired signal level of -80 dBm at
2.410 GHz and two interferers of equal levels at 2.420 GHz and 2.430 GHz. For
simplicity, assume the LNA drives a 50-Ω load.
(a) Determine the value of α3 that yields a P1dB of -30 dBm.
(b) If each interferer is 10 dB below P1dB, determine the corruption experienced by
the desired signal at the LNA output.

Solution:

(a) From previous equation, α3 = 14.500 V-2

(b) Each interferer has a level of -40 dBm (= 6.32 m Vpp), we determine the amplitude of the
IM product at 2.410 GHz as:

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 27

 Intermodulation: Two-Tone Test and Relative IM

Two-Tone Test Harmonic Test

 Two-Tone Test can be applied to systems with arbitrarily narrow bandwidths

Meaningful only when

A is given

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 28

 Intermodulation: Third Intercept Point

 IP3 is not a directly measureable quantity, but a point obtained by

extrapolation
Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 29
 Example of Third Intercept Point

A low-noise amplifier senses a -80-dBm signal at 2.410 GHz and two -20-dBm
interferers at 2.420 GHz and 2.430 GHz. What IIP3 is required if the IM products
must remain 20 dB below the signal? For simplicity, assume 50-Ω interfaces at the
input and output.

Solution:

At the LNA output:

Thus

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 30

 Third Intercept Point: A reasonable estimate

 For a given input level (well below P1dB), the IIP3 can be calculated by halving
the difference between the output fundamental and IM levels and adding the
result to the input level, where all values are expressed as logarithmic
quantities.
Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 31
 Effects of Nonlinearity: Cascaded Nonlinear Stages

Considering only the first- and third-order terms, we have:

Thus,

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 32

 Example of Cascaded Nonlinear Stages

Two differential pairs are cascaded. Is it possible to select the denominator of

equation above such that IP3 goes to infinity?

Solution:

With no asymmetries in the cascade, α2 = β2 = 0. Thus, we seek the condition α3β1 + α13β3 = 0,
or equivalently,

Since both stages are compressive, α3/α1 < 0 and β3/β1 < 0. It is therefore impossible to
achieve an arbitrarily high IP3.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 33

 Cascaded Nonlinear Stages: Intuitive results

 To “refer” the IP3 of the second stage to the input of the cascade, we must
divide it by α1. Thus, the higher the gain of the first stage, the more
nonlinearity is contributed by the second stage.
Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 34
 IM Spectra in a Cascade (Ⅰ)
Let us assume x(t) =Acos ω1t + Acos ω2t and identify the IM products in a cascade:

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 35

 IM Spectra in a Cascade (Ⅱ)
Adding the amplitudes of the IM products, we have

 Add in phase as worst-case scenario

 Heavily attenuated in narrow-band circuits

For more stages:

 Thus, if each stage in a cascade has a gain greater than unity, the nonlinearity
of the latter stages becomes increasingly more critical because the IP3 of each
stage is equivalently scaled down by the total gain preceding that stage.
Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 36
 Example of Cascaded Nonlinear Stages

A low-noise amplifier having an input IP3 of -10 dBm and a gain of 20 dB is

followed by a mixer with an input IP3 of +4 dBm. Which stage limits the IP3 of the
cascade more?

Solution:

With α1 = 20 dB, we note that

Since the scaled IP3 of the second stage is lower than the IP3 of the first stage, we say the
second stage limits the overall IP3 more.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 37

 Linearity Limit due to Each Stage

 Examine the relative IM magnitudes at the output of each stage to find out
which stage limits the linearity more

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 38

 Effects of Nonlinearity: AM/PM Conversion

 AM/PM Conversion arises in systems both dynamic and nonlinear

If R1C1(t)ω1 << 1 rad

Assume that

obtaining

Phase shift of Higher harmonic

fundamental, Const.
Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 39
 AM/PM Conversion: Time-Variation of Capacitor

First order voltage dependence:

 No AM/PM conversion because of the first-order dependence of C1 on Vout

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 40

 Example of AM/PM Conversion: Second Order
Voltage Dependence
Suppose C1 in above RC section is expressed as C1 = C0(1 + α1Vout + α2Vout2).
Study the AM/PM conversion in this case if Vin(t) = V1 cos ω1t.
Figure below plots C1(t) for small and large input swings, revealing that Cavg indeed depends
on the amplitude.

The phase shift of the fundamental now contains an

input-dependent term, -(α2R1C0ω1V12 )/2. This figure
also suggests that AM/PM conversion does not
occur if the capacitor voltage dependence is odd-
symmetric.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 41

 Noise: Noise as a Random Process

Higher temperature

 The average current remains equal to VB/R but the instantaneous current
displays random values

 T must be long enough to accommodate several cycles of the lowest

frequency.
Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 42
 Measurement of Noise Spectrum

 To measure signal’s frequency content at 10 kHz, we need to filter out the

remainder of the spectrum and measure the average power of the 10-kHz
component.
Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 43
 Noise Spectrum: Power Spectral Density (PSD)

Two-Sided One-Sided

 Total area under Sx(f) represents the average power carried by x(t)

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 44

 Example of Noise Spectrum

A resistor of value R1 generates a noise voltage whose one-sided PSD is given by

where k = 1.38 × 10-23 J/K denotes the Boltzmann constant and T the absolute
temperature. Such a flat PSD is called “white” because, like white light, it contains
all frequencies with equal power levels.
(a) What is the total average power carried by the noise voltage?
(b) What is the dimension of Sv(f)?
(c) Calculate the noise voltage for a 50-Ω resistor in 1 Hz at room temperature.
(a) The area under Sv(f) appears to be infinite, an implausible result because the resistor
noise arises from the finite ambient heat. In reality, Sv(f) begins to fall at f > 1 THz, exhibiting
a finite total energy, i.e., thermal noise is not quite white.
(b) The dimension of Sv(f) is voltage squared per unit bandwidth (V2/Hz)
(c) For a 50-Ω resistor at T = 300 K

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 45

 Effect of Transfer Function on Noise/ Device Noise

 Define PSD to allow many of the frequency-domain operations used with

deterministic signals to be applied to random signals as well.

 Noise can be modeled by a series voltage source or a parallel current source

 Polarity of the sources is unimportant but must be kept same throughout the
calculations
Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 46
 Example of Device Noise

Sketch the PSD of the noise voltage measured across the parallel RLC tank
depicted in figure below.

Modeling the noise of R1 by a current source and noting that the transfer function Vn/In1 is, in
fact, equal to the impedance of the tank, ZT , we write

At f0, L1 and C1 resonate, reducing the circuit to only R1. Thus, the output noise at f0
is simply equal to 4kTR1. At lower or higher frequencies, the impedance of the tank falls and
so does the output noise.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 47

 Can We Extract Energy from Resistor?

Suppose R2 is held at T = 0 K

This quantity reaches a maximum if R2 = R1 :

PR2,max = kT

Available noise power

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 48

 A Theorem about Lossy Circuit

 If the real part of the impedance seen between two terminals of a passive
(reciprocal) network is equal to Re{Zout}, then the PSD of the thermal noise
seen between these terminals is given by 4kTRe{Zout}

 An example of transmitting antenna, with radiation resistance Rrad

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 49

 Noise in MOSFETS

 Thermal noise of MOS transistors operating in the saturation region is

approximated by a current source tied between the source and drain terminals,
or can be modeled by a voltage source in series with gate.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 50

 Gate-induced Noise Current

 At very high frequencies thermal noise

current flowing through the channel
couples to the gate capacitively

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 51

 Flicker Noise and An Example

Can the flicker noise be modeled by a current source?

Yes, a MOSFET having a small-signal voltage source of magnitude V1 in series with its gate
is equivalent to a device with a current source of value gmV1 tied between drain and source.
Thus,

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 52

 Noise in Bipolar Transistors
Bipolar transistors contain physical resistances in their base, emitter, and collector regions,
all of which generate thermal noise. Moreover, they also suffer from “shot noise” associated
with the transport of carriers across the base-emitter junction.

 In low-noise circuits, the base resistance thermal noise and the collector
current shot noise become dominant. For this reason, wide transistors biased
at high current levels are employed.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 53

 Representation of Noise in Circuits: Input-Referred
Noise

 Voltage source: short the input port of models A and B and equate their output
noise voltage
 Current source: leave the input ports open and equate the output noise voltage

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 54

 Example of Input-Referred Noise

Calculate the input-referred noise of the common-gate stage depicted in figure

below (left). Assume I1 is ideal and neglect the noise of R1.

Solution:

noise voltage noise current

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 55

 Another Example of Input-Referred Noise

Explain why the output noise of a circuit depends on the output impedance of the
preceding stage.

Solution:

Modeling the noise of the circuit by input-referred sources, we observe that some of noise
current flows through Z1, generating a noise voltage at the input that depends on |Z1|. Thus,
the output noise, Vn,out, also depends on |Z1|.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 56

 Noise Figure

 Depends on not only the noise of the circuit under consideration but the SNR
provided by the preceding stage
 If the input signal contains no noise, NF=∞

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 57

 Calculation of Noise Figure

 NF must be specified with respect to a source impedance-typically 50 Ω

 Reduce the right hand side to a simpler form:

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 58

 Calculation of NF: Summary

Calculation of NF

 Divide total output noise  Calculate the output noise

by the gain from Vin to Vout due to the amplifier, divide it
and normalize the result to by the gain, normalize it to
the noise of Rs 4kTRs and add 1 to the
result

 Valid even if no actual power is transferred. So long as the derivations

incorporate noise and signal voltages, no inconsistency arises in the presence
of impedance mismatches or even infinite input impedances.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 59

 Example of Noise Figure Calculation

Compute the noise figure of a shunt resistor RP with respect to a source

impedance RS

Solution:

Setting Vin to zero:

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 60

 Another Example of Noise Figure Calculation

Determine the noise figure of the common-source stage shown in below (left) with
respect to a source impedance RS. Neglect the capacitances and flicker noise of
M1 and assume I1 is ideal.

Solution:

This result implies that the NF falls as RS rises. Does this mean that, even though the
amplifier remains unchanged, the overall system noise performance improves as RS
increases?!
Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 61
 Noise Figure of Cascaded Stages (Ⅰ)

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 62

 Noise Figure of Cascaded Stages (Ⅱ)

This quantity is in fact the “available power gain” of the first stage, defined as the “available
power” at its output, Pout,av (the power that it would deliver to a matched load) divided by the
available source power, PS,av (the power that the source would deliver to a matched load).

Called “Friis’ equation”, this result suggests that the noise contributed by each stage
decreases as the total gain preceding that stage increases, implying that the first few stages
in a cascade are the most critical.
Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 63
 Example of Noise Figure of Cascaded Stages

Determine the NF of the cascade of common-source stages shown in figure below.

Neglect the transistor capacitances and flicker noise.

Solution:

where

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 64

 Another Example of Noise Figure of Cascaded
Stages
Determine the noise figure of the circuit shown below. Neglect transistor
capacitances, flicker noise, channel-length modulation , and body effect.

Solution:

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 65

 Noise Figure of Lossy Circuits

The power loss is calculated as:

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 66

 Example of Noise Figure of Lossy Circuits

The receiver shown below incorporates a front-end band-pass filter (BPF) to

suppress some of the interferers that may desensitize the LNA. If the filter has a
loss of L and the LNA a noise figure of NFLNA, calculate the overall noise figure.

Solution:

Denoting the noise figure of the filter by NFfilt,

we write Friis’ equation as

where NFLNA is calculated with respect to the output resistance of the filter. For example, if L
= 1.5 dB and NFLNA = 2 dB, then NFtot = 3.5 dB.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 67

 Sensitivity and Dynamic Range: Sensitivity

 The sensitivity is defined as the minimum signal level that a receiver can
detect with “acceptable quality.”

Noise Floor
Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 68
 Example of Sensitivity

A GSM receiver requires a minimum SNR of 12 dB and has a channel bandwidth

of 200 kHz. A wireless LAN receiver, on the other hand, specifies a minimum SNR
of 23 dB and has a channel bandwidth of 20 MHz. Compare the sensitivities of
these two systems if both have an NF of 7 dB.

Solution:

For the GSM receiver, Psen = -102 dBm, whereas for the wireless LAN system, Psen = -71 dBm.
Does this mean that the latter is inferior? No, the latter employs a much wider bandwidth
and a more efficient modulation to accommodate a data rate of 54 Mb/s. The GSM system
handles a data rate of only 270 kb/s. In other words, specifying the sensitivity of a receiver
without the data rate is not meaningful.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 69

 Dynamic Range Compared with SFDR

DR SFDR

 Dynamic Range:  SFDR:

Maximum tolerable desired signal Lower end equal to sensitivity.
power divided by the minimum Higher end defined as maximum
tolerable desired signal power input level in a two-tone test for
which the third-order IM products
do not exceed the integrated noise
of the receiver
Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 70
 SFDR Calculation

Refer output IM magnitudes to input:

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 71

 Example Comparing SFDR and DR

The upper end of the dynamic range is limited by intermodulation in the presence
of two interferers or desensitization in the presence of one interferer. Compare
these two cases and determine which one is more restrictive.

Solution:

Since

Noise floor

 SFDR is a more stringent characteristic of system than DR

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 72

 Passive Impedance Transformation: Quality Factor

 Quality Factor, Q, indicates how close to ideal an energy-storing device is.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 73

 Series-to-Parallel Conversion

Qs=Qp

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 74

 Parallel-to-Series Conversion

 Series-to-Parallel Conversion: will retain the value of the capacitor but raises
the resistance by a factor of Qs2
 Parallel-to-Series Conversion: will reduce the resistance by a factor of QP2

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 75

 Basic Matching Networks

Thus,

RL transformed
down by a factor

Setting imaginary
part to zero

If

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 76

 Example of Basic Matching Networks

Design the matching network of figure above so as to transform RL = 50 Ω to 25 Ω

at a center frequency of 5 GHz.

Solution:

Assuming QP2 >> 1, we have C1 = 0:90 pF and L1 = 1.13 nH, respectively. Unfortunately,
however, QP = 1.41, indicating the QP2 >> 1 approximation cannot be used. We thus obtain C1
= 0:637 pF and L1 = 0:796 nH.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 77

 Transfer a Resistance to a Higher Value

If

Viewing C2 and C1 as one capacitor, Ceq

RL boosted

For low Q values

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 78

 Another Example of Basic Matching Networks

Determine how the circuit shown below transforms RL.

Solution:

We postulate that conversion of the L1-RL branch to a parallel section produces a higher
resistance. If QS2 = (L1ω/RL)2 >> 1, then the equivalent parallel resistance is

The parallel equivalent inductance is approximately equal to L1 and is cancelled by C1

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 79

 L-Sections

For example, in (a), we have:

a network transforming RL to a lower value “amplifies” the voltage and attenuates

the current by the above factor.
Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 80
 Example of L-Sections

A closer look at the L-sections (a) and (c) suggests that one can be obtained from
the other by swapping the input and output ports. Is it possible to generalize this
observation?

Solution:

Yes, it is. Consider the arrangement shown above (left), where the passive network
transforms RL by a factor of α. Assuming the input port exhibits no imaginary component,
we equate the power delivered to the network to the power delivered to the load:

If the input and output ports of such a network are swapped, the resistance transformation
ratio is simply inverted.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 81

 Impedance Matching by Transformers

 More on this in Chapter 8

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 82

 Loss in Matching Networks

We define the loss as the power provided by the input divided by that delivered to RL

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 83

 Scattering Parameters

 S-Parameter: Use power quantities instead of voltage or current

 The difference between the incident power (the power that would be delivered
to a matched load) and the reflected power represents the power delivered to
the circuit.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 84

 S11 and S12

 S11 is the ratio of the reflected and

incident waves at the input port
when the reflection from RL is zero.
 Represents the accuracy of the
input matching

 S12 is the ratio of the reflected wave

at the input port to the incident
wave into the output port when the
input is matched
 Characterizes the reverse isolation

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 85

 S21 and S22

 S21 is the ratio of the wave incident

on the load to that going to the
input when the reflection from RL is
zero
 Represents the gain of the circuit

 S22 is the ratio of reflected and

incident waves at the output when
the reflection from Rs is zero
 Represents the accuracy of the
output matching

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 86

 Scattering Parameters: A few remarks

 S-parameters generally have frequency-dependent complex values

 We often express S-parameters in units of dB

 The condition V2+=0 does not mean output port of the circuit must be
conjugate-matched to RL.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 87

 Input Reflection Coefficient

In modern RF design, S11 is the most commonly-used S parameter as it quantifies the

accuracy of impedance matching at the input of receivers.

 Called the “input reflection coefficient” and denoted by Gin, this quantity can
also be considered to be S11 if we remove the condition V2+ = 0
Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 88
 Example of Scattering Parameters (Ⅰ)
Determine the S-parameters of the common-gate stage shown in figure below
(left). Neglect channel-length modulation and body effect.

Drawing the circuit as shown above (middle), where CX = CGS + CSB and CY = CGD + CDB, we
write Zin = (1/gm)||(CXs)-1 and

For S12, we recognize that above arrangement yields no coupling from the output to the
input if channel-length modulation is neglected. Thus, S12 = 0.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 89

 Example of Scattering Parameters (Ⅱ)
Determine the S-parameters of the common-gate stage shown in figure below
(left). Neglect channel-length modulation and body effect.
For S22, we note that Zout = RD||(CY s)-1 and hence

Lastly, S21 is obtained according to the configuration of figure above (right). Since V2-/Vin =
(V2-/VX)(VX/Vin), V2- /VX = gm[RD||RS||(CY s)-1], and VX/Vin = Zin/(Zin + RS), we obtain

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 90

 Analysis of Nonlinear Dynamic Systems：Basic
Consideration
Input:

Output: harmonics

IM products

 If the differential equation governing the system is known, we can simply

substitute for y(t) from this expression, equate the like terms, and compute an,
bn, cm,n, and the phase shifts.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 91

 Analysis of Nonlinear Dynamic Systems: Harmonic
Balance

 We must now substitute for Vout(t) and Vin(t) in the above equation, convert
products of sinusoids to sums, bring all of the terms to one side of the
equation, group them according to their frequencies, and equate the
coefficient of each sinusoid to zero.
 This type of analysis is called “harmonic balance” because it predicts the
output frequencies and attempts to balance the two sides of the circuit’s
differential equation

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 92

 Volterra Series(Ⅰ)

For a linear, time-invariant system, the output is given by

C1 = C0, then

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 93

 Volterra Series(Ⅱ)

Linear responses

Nonlinear responses

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 94

 Example of Volterra Series(Ⅰ)

Determine H2(ω1,ω2) for the RC circuit with nonlinear capacitor previoius shown

Solution:

We apply the input:

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 95

 Example of Volterra Series(Ⅱ)

Determine H2(ω1,ω2) for the RC circuit with nonlinear capacitor previoius shown

Consider the terms containing ω1+ω2:

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 96

 Another Example of Volterra Series

If an input V0exp(jω1t) is applied to the RC circuit with nonlinear capacitor,

determine the amplitude of the second harmonic at the output.

Solution:

As mentioned earlier, the component at 2ω1 is obtained as H2(ω1, ω1)V02 exp[j(ω1 + ω1)t]
Thus, the amplitude is equal to

Since

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 97

 Volterra Series: Nth-Order Terms

 Hm is called the m-th Volterra kernel

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 98

 Example of Volterra Kernel Calculation

Determine the third Volterra kernel for the same circuit discussed above.

Solution:
assume

Introduce the short hands

Substitute for Vout and Vin, grouping all of the terms

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 99

 Volterra Series: Harmonic Method

1. Assume Vin(t) = V0 exp(jω1t) and Vout(t) = H1(ω1)V0 exp(jω1t). Substitute for Vout and Vin
in the system’s differential equation, group the terms that contain exp(jω1t), and compute
the first (linear) kernel, H1(ω1).

2. Assume Vin(t) = V0 exp(jω1t) + V0 exp(jω2t) and Vout(t) = H1(ω1)V0 exp(jω1t) +

H1(ω2)V0exp(jω2t)+H2(ω1; ω2)V02 exp[j(ω1 +ω2)t]. Make substitutions in the differential
equation, group the terms that contain exp[j(ω1 + ω2)t], and determine the second kernel,
H2(ω1; ω2).

3. Assume Vin(t) = V0 exp(jω1t) + V0 exp(jω2t) + V0 exp(jω3t) and Vout(t) is given. Make

substitutions, group the terms that contain exp[j(ω1 + ω2 + ω3)t], and calculate the
third kernel, H3(ω1; ω2; ω3).

4. To compute the amplitude of harmonics and IM components, choose ω1, ω2, · · · properly.
For example, H2(ω1; ω1) yields the transfer function for 2ω1 and H3(ω1;-ω2; ω1) the transfer
function for 2ω1 - ω2.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 100

 Volterra Series: Method of Nonlinear Currents

1. Assume Vin(t) = V0 exp(jω1t) and determine the linear response of the circuit by ignoring
the nonlinearity. The “response” includes both the output of interest and the voltage across
the nonlinear device.

2. Assume Vin(t) = V0 exp(jω1t) + V0 exp(jω2t) and calculate the voltage across the nonlinear
device, assuming it is linear. Now, compute the nonlinear component of the current flowing
through the device, assuming the device is nonlinear.

3. Set the main input to zero and place a current source equal to the nonlinear component
found in Step 2 in parallel with the nonlinear device.

4. Ignoring the nonlinearity of the device again, determine the circuit’s response to the
current source applied in Step 3. Again, the response includes the output of interest and the
voltage across the nonlinear device.

5. Repeat Steps 2, 3, and 4 for higher-order responses. The overall response is equal to the
output components found in Steps 1, 4, etc.

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 101

 Example Using Method of Nonlinear Currents (Ⅰ)

Determine H3(ω1,ω2,ω3) for the circuit below.

Solution:

Step 1
The voltage across the capacitor is equal to:

Step 2

Compute the nonlinear current flowing through C1

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 102

 Example Using Method of Nonlinear Currents (Ⅱ)

Determine H3(ω1,ω2,ω3) for the circuit below.

Solution:

Step 3
Set the input to zero, assume a linear capacitor, and apply IC1,non(t) in parallel with C1

Step 4

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 103

 Example Using Method of Nonlinear Currents (Ⅲ)

Determine H3(ω1,ω2,ω3) for the circuit below.

Step 5

The nonlinear current through C1 is thus equal to

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 104

 Another Example Using Method of Nonlinear
Currents (Ⅰ)
Figure below shows the input network of a commonly-used LNA (Chapter 5).
Assuming that gmL1/CGS = RS (Chapter 5) and ID = α(VGS-VTH)2, determine the
nonlinear terms in Iout. Neglect other capacitances, channel-length modulation,
and body effect.

Solution: Step 1

Step 2
assume

This voltage results in a nonlinear current given by

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 105

 Another Example Using Method of Nonlinear
Currents (Ⅱ)
Figure below shows the input network of a commonly-used LNA (Chapter 5).
Assuming that gmL1/CGS = RS (Chapter 5) and ID = α(VGS-VTH)2, determine the
nonlinear terms in Iout. Neglect other capacitances, channel-length modulation,
and body effect.
Solution: Step 3&4

Thus, for s = jω

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 106

 Another Example Using Method of Nonlinear
Currents (Ⅳ)
Figure below shows the input network of a commonly-used LNA (Chapter 5).
Assuming that gmL1/CGS = RS (Chapter 5) and ID = α(VGS-VTH)2, determine the
nonlinear terms in Iout. Neglect other capacitances, channel-length modulation,
and body effect.
Solution: Step 5

assume

Since ID = αV12, the nonlinear current at ω1 + ω2 + ω3 is expressed as

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 107

 References (Ⅰ)

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 108

 References (Ⅱ)

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 109

 References (Ⅲ)

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts in RF Design 110