DC TO DC CONVERTERS

Chopper
i0
+

V R V0


Rajesh Prasad
Assistant Professor
Electrical Engineering Department
Sarvajanik College of Engineering and Technology,
Surat
Email: [email protected]
Introduction
 Chopper is a static device.
 A variable dc voltage is obtained from a constant dc
voltage source.
 Also known as dc-to-dc converter.

 Widely used for motor control.

 Also used in regenerative braking.

 In DC-DC conversion circuits, thyristors are used as

switching elements. Here thyristors must be turned off
using forced commutation as they lack facility of
natural commutation that is available in AC circuits.
 Buck chopper produces output that is less than or
equal to input voltage.
 Boost chopper provides an output voltage that is
2

greater than or equal to input voltage.

Principles Of Basic DC Choppers

 Switch is turned on and off periodically. In this way

constant voltage can be connected to and disconnected
from the load.

 By a periodic application of constant voltage at a

particular frequency across the load, variable voltage
can be achieved by controlling the on period of the
switch.
3
 Principles Of Basic DC Choppers
Chopper
i0
+

V R V0


 A step-down chopper with resistive load.
 The thyristor in the circuit acts as a switch.

 When thyristor is ON, supply voltage appears across

the load 4
 When thyristor is OFF, the voltage across the load will
be zero.
Principles Of Basic DC Choppers
v0
V

Vdc

t
tON tOFF
i0

V/R
Idc
t
T 5
 Principles Of Basic DC Choppers

Vdc  Average value of output or load voltage.

I dc  Average value of output or load current.
tON  Time interval for which SCR conducts.
tOFF  Time interval for which SCR is OFF.
T  tON  tOFF  Period of switching or chopping period.
1
f   Freq. of chopper switching or chopping freq.
T
6
Principles Of Basic DC Choppers

Average Output Voltage

 tON 
Vdc  V  
 tON  tOFF 
 tON 
Vdc  V    V .d
 T 
 tON 
but    d  duty cycle
 t  7
Principles Of Basic DC Choppers

Average Output Current

Vdc
I dc 
R
V  tON  V
I dc    d
R T  R
RMS value of output voltage
tON
1
VO   v dt
2
o
T 0
8
Principles Of Basic DC Choppers

But during tON , vo  V

Therefore RMS output voltage
tON
1
VO  V
2
dt
T 0

2
V tON
VO  tON  .V
T T
VO  d .V 9
Principles Of Basic DC Choppers
Output power PO  VO I O
VO
But IO 
R
 Output power
2
V
PO  O

R
2
dV
PO 
R 10
Principles Of Basic DC Choppers

Effective input resistance of chopper

Vdcsource Vdc R
Ri   *
I avgsource d Vdc
R
Ri 
d
The output voltage can be varied by
varying the duty cycle. 11
Methods Of Control

 The output dc voltage can be varied by the following

methods.
 Pulse width modulation control or
constant frequency operation.
 Variable frequency control.

12
Pulse Width Modulation
 tON is varied keeping chopping frequency ‘f’ & chopping
period ‘T’ constant.
 Output voltage is varied by varying the ON time tON
V0
V

tON tOFF

t
T
V0

13
t
tON tOFF
Variable Frequency Control
 Chopping frequency ‘f’ is varied keeping either tON or
tOFF constant.
 To obtain full output voltage range, frequency has to be
varied over a wide range.
 This method produces harmonics in the output and for
large tOFF load current may become discontinuous
v0
V

tON tOFF
t
T
v0

14
tON tOFF
t
T
Step-Down Chopper circuit

15
Step-Down Chopper circuit

16
Step-Down Chopper circuit

17
Step-Down Chopper circuit
•Continous Current Mode

18
Step-Down Chopper circuit
•Discontinous Current Mode

19
Step-Down Chopper circuit

Chopper
i0
+
R

V V0
FWD L

E


20
Step-Down Chopper circuit

•EXPRESSIONS FOR
LOAD CURRENT
IO FOR CONTINUOUS CURRENT OPERATION WHEN
CHOPPER IS ON (0  T  TON)

i0
+
R

V V0
L

E 21

-
Step-Down Chopper circuit
diO
V  iO R  L E
dt
Taking Laplace Transform

 RI O  S   L  S .I O  S   iO  0   
V  E
S S
At t  0, initial current iO  0   I min


V E I min
IO  S   
 R R
LS  S   S 
 L 22
L
Step-Down Chopper circuit

Taking Inverse Laplace Transform

V E    R  R
 t  t
iO  t   1  e   I min e
 L  L
R  
This expression is valid for 0  t  tON ,
i.e., during the period chopper is ON.
At the instant the chopper is turned off,
load current is iO  tON   I max 23
Step-Down Chopper circuit

WHEN CHOPPER IS OFF

i0

E
24
Step-Down Chopper circuit
When Chopper is OFF  0  t  tOFF 
diO
0  RiO  L E
dt
Talking Laplace transform

0  RI O  S   L  SI O  S   iO  0   
 E
S
Redefining time origin we have at t  0,
initial current iO  0 
I max 25
Step-Down Chopper circuit

I max E
 IO  S   
S
R  R
LS  S  
L  L
Taking Inverse Laplace Transform
R
 t E R
 t 
iO  t   I max e L
 1  e L

R  26
Step-Down Chopper circuit

The expression is valid for 0  t  tOFF ,

i.e., during the period chopper is OFF

At the instant the chopper is turned ON or at

the end of the off period, the load current is
iO  tOFF   I min
27
Step-Down Chopper circuit
To Find I max & I min
From equation
V E  
 R
  t  
 R
 t
iO  t   1  e  L
  I min e  L
R  
At t  tON  dT , iO  t   I max
V E  
dRT
 
dRT
 I max  1  e
L
  I min e
L
R   28
Step-Down Chopper circuit

From equation
R
 t E R
 t 
iO  t   I max e L
 1  e L

R 
At t  tOFF  T  tON , iO  t   I min
t  tOFF  1  d  T
29
Step-Down Chopper circuit

1 d  RT
 
1 d  RT

E
 I min  I max e L  1  e L 
R  
Substituting for I min in equation
V E  
dRT
 
dRT
I max  1  e L

 min
I e L
R  
we get,
 
dRT

V 1  e L  E
I max 
R 
RT  R
 1  e L 
30
Step-Down Chopper circuit
Substituting for I max in equation

1 d  RT  
1 d  RT 
E
I min  I max e L
 1  e L 
R  
we get,
 dRT

V  e  1 E
L
I min  
R L RT  R
 e  1 
 I max  I min  is known as the steady state ripple.31
Step-Down Chopper circuit

Therefore peak-to-peak ripple current

I  I max  I min
Average output voltage
Vdc  d .V
Average output current
I max  I min
I dc approx  
2 32
 Principle Of Step-up Chopper

I L D
+
+ 

L
C O VO
V A
D
Chopper

33
Principle Of Step-up Chopper
 Step-up chopper is used to obtain a load voltage higher
than the input voltage V.
 The values of L and C are chosen depending upon the
requirement of output voltage and current.
 When the chopper is ON, the inductor L is connected
across the supply.
 The inductor current ‘I’ rises and the inductor stores
energy during the ON time of the chopper, tON.

34
 Principle Of Step-up Chopper
 When the chopper is off, the inductor current I is forced
to flow through the diode D and load for a period, tOFF.
 The current tends to decrease resulting in reversing the
polarity of induced EMF in L.
 Therefore voltage across load is given by

dI
VO  V  L i.e., VO  V
dt
 A large capacitor ‘C’ connected across the load, will
provide a continuous output voltage .
 Diode D prevents any current flow from capacitor to
the source. 35
 Step up choppers are used for regenerative braking of
dc motors.
Principle Of Step-up Chopper

36
37
EXPRESSION FOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE

Assume the average inductor current to be

I during ON and OFF time of Chopper.
When Chopper is ON
Voltage across inductor L  V
Therefore energy stored in inductor
= V .I .tON
Where tON  ON period of chopper.
38
EXPRESSION FOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE

When Chopper is OFF

(energy is supplied by inductor to load)
Voltage across L  VO  V
Energy supplied by inductor L  VO  V  ItOFF
where tOFF  OFF period of Chopper.
Neglecting losses, energy stored in inductor
L = energy supplied by inductor L
39
EXPRESSION FOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE
 VItON  VO  V  ItOFF
V tON  tOFF 
VO 
tOFF
 T 
VO  V  
 T  tON 
Where
T = Chopping period or period
of switching. 40
EXPRESSION FOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE
T  tON  tOFF
 
 1 
VO  V  
tON
 1 
 T 
 1 
 VO  V  
 1 d 
tON
Where d   duty cyle 41
T
EXPRESSION FOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE

For variation of duty cycle ' d ' in the

range of 0  d  1 the output voltage VO
will vary in the range V  VO  

42
BUCK-BOOST CHOPPER

43
BUCK-BOOST CHOPPER

44
BUCK-BOOST CHOPPER

45
BUCK-BOOST CHOPPER

46
BUCK-BOOST CHOPPER

47
CLASSIFICATION OF CHOPPERS
 Choppers are classified as
 Class A Chopper
 Class B Chopper
 Class C Chopper
 Class D Chopper
 Class E Chopper

48
 CLASSIFICATION OF CHOPPERS

•CLASS A CHOPPER
i0 v0
+

Chopper
L
O v0 V
V A
FWD D

 i0

49
CLASS A CHOPPER
 When chopper is ON, supply voltage V is connected
across the load.
 When chopper is OFF, vO = 0 and the load current
continues to flow in the same direction through the
FWD.
 The average values of output voltage and current are
always positive.
 Class A Chopper is a first quadrant chopper .

 Class A Chopper is a step-down chopper in which power

always flows form source to load.
 It is used to control the speed of dc motor.

 The output current equations obtained in step down

chopper with R-L load can be used to study the 50
performance of Class A Chopper.
 CLASS A CHOPPER
ig Thyristor
gate pulse

t
i0
Output current

CH ON
t
v0 FWD Conducts
Output voltage

t 51
tON
T
 CLASS B CHOPPER

D
i0 v0
+
R

V L v0

Chopper
E i0


52
CLASS B CHOPPER
 When chopper is ON, E drives a current through L
and R in a direction opposite to that shown in figure.
 During the ON period of the chopper, the inductance L
stores energy.
 When Chopper is OFF, diode D conducts, and part of
the energy stored in inductor L is returned to the
supply.
 Average output voltage is positive.
 Average output current is negative.
 Therefore Class B Chopper operates in second
quadrant.
 In this chopper, power flows from load to source.
 Class B Chopper is used for regenerative braking of dc
motor. 53

 Class B Chopper is a step-up chopper.

 CLASS B CHOPPER
ig
Thyristor
gate pulse

t
i0 tOFF tON

T
t
Output current
Imax
Imin
D
conducts Chopper
conducts
v0 Output voltage

54
t
 CLASS C CHOPPER

CH1 D1
i0 v0
+

V R

CH2 D2 L v0

Chopper
i0
E


55
CLASS C CHOPPER
 Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A and Class
B Choppers.
 For first quadrant operation, CH1 is ON or D2
conducts.
 For second quadrant operation, CH2 is ON or D1
conducts.
 When CH1 is ON, the load current is positive.
 The output voltage is equal to ‘V’ & the load receives
power from the source.
 When CH1 is turned OFF, energy stored in inductance
L forces current to flow through the diode D2 and the
output voltage is zero.

56
CLASS C CHOPPER
 Current continues to flow in positive direction.
 When CH2 is triggered, the voltage E forces current to
flow in opposite direction through L and CH2 .
 The output voltage is zero.
 On turning OFF CH2 , the energy stored in the
inductance drives current through diode D1 and the
supply
 Output voltage is V, the input current becomes
negative and power flows from load to source.

57
CLASS C CHOPPER
 Average output voltage is positive
 Average output current can take both positive and
negative values.
 Choppers CH1 & CH2 should not be turned ON
simultaneously as it would result in short circuiting the
supply.
 Class C Chopper can be used both for dc motor control
and regenerative braking of dc motor.
 Class C Chopper can be used as a step-up or step-down
chopper.

58
CLASS C CHOPPER
ig1
Gate pulse
of CH1

t
ig2 Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current

D1 CH1 D2 CH2 D1 CH1 D2 CH2

ON ON ON ON
V0
Output voltage

59
t
CLASS D CHOPPER

v0
CH1 D2

R i0 L E
V
+ v0  i0

D1 CH2

60
 CLASS D CHOPPER
 Class D is a two quadrant chopper.
 When both CH1 and CH2 are triggered simultaneously,
the output voltage vO = V and output current flows
through the load.
 When CH1 and CH2 are turned OFF, the load current
continues to flow in the same direction through load, D1
and D2 , due to the energy stored in the inductor L.
 Output voltage vO = - V .

 Average load voltage is positive if chopper ON time is

more than the OFF time
 Average output voltage becomes negative if tON < tOFF
.
 Hence the direction of load current is always positive 61

but load voltage can be positive or negative.

CLASS D CHOPPER
ig1
Gate pulse
of CH1

t
ig2 Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current

t
CH1,CH2 D1,D2 Conducting
ON
v0
Output voltage
V
Average v0 62
t
Ci LASS D CHOPPER
g1
Gate pulse
of CH1

t
ig2 Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current

CH1
CH2
t
D1, D2
v0
Output voltage
V
63
t
Average v0
CLASS E CHOPPER

CH1 D1 CH3 D3

i0 R L E
V
+ 
v0
CH2 D2 CH4 D4

64
CLASS E CHOPPER

FOUR QUADRANT OPERATION

v0
CH2 - D4 Conducts CH1 - CH4 ON
D1 - D4 Conducts CH4 - D2 Conducts

i0

CH3 - CH2 ON D2 - D3 Conducts

65
CH2 - D4 Conducts CH4 - D2 Conducts
CLASS E CHOPPER
 Class E is a four quadrant chopper
 When CH1 and CH4 are triggered, output current iO
flows in positive direction through CH1 and CH4, and
with output voltage vO = V.
 This gives the first quadrant operation.

CH1 D1 CH3 D3

i0 R L E
V
+ 
v0
CH2 D2 CH4 D4

66
CLASS E CHOPPER
 When both CH1 and CH4 are OFF, the energy stored in
the inductor L drives iO through D2 and D3 in the
same direction, but output voltage vO = -V.
 Therefore the chopper operates in the fourth quadrant.

CH1 D1 CH3 D3

i0 R L E
V
+ 
v0
CH2 D2 CH4 D4

67
CLASS E CHOPPER
When CH2 and CH3 are triggered, the load current iO
flows in opposite direction & output voltage vO = -V.
 Since both iO and vO are negative, the chopper
operates in third quadrant.

CH1 D1 CH3 D3

i0 R L E
V
+ 
v0
CH2 D2 CH4 D4

68
CLASS E CHOPPER
 When both CH2 and CH3 are OFF, the load current iO
continues to flow in the same direction D1 and D4 and
the output voltage vO = V.
 Therefore the chopper operates in second quadrant as
vO is positive but iO is negative.

CH1 D1 CH3 D3

i0 R L E
V
+ 
v0
CH2 D2 CH4 D4

69