Chapter 16

Sheet-Metal Forming Processes

 Sheet-Metal Parts

(a) (b)

Figure 16.1 Examples of sheet-metal parts. (a) Die-formed and cut stamped parts.
(b) Parts produced by spinning. Source: (a) Courtesy of Aphase II, Inc. (b)
Courtesy of Hialeah Metal Spinning, Inc.
 Shearing
• Shearing: mechanical cutting of materials without
the formation of chips or the use of turning or
melting.
• Shearing starts with the formation of cracks on both
top & bottom edges of wp (A, B, C, D).
• Shearing parameters:
1. Shape of & materials for punch and die.
2. Punching speed.
3. Lubrication
4. Clearance, c, between punch & die. As c inc, the
sheared edge becomes rougher, and the zone of
deformation becomes larger (F16.2)
 Shearing with a
Punch and Die

Punch force, F  0.7TLUTS 



Figure 16.2 (a) Schematic illustration of

shearing with a punch and die, indicating
some of the process variables.
Characteristic features of (b) a punched
hole and (c) the slug. (Note: The scales
of the two figures are different.)
 Shearing
• Ratio of burnished to rough areas on sheared edge increases with
increasing ductility of sheet metal, and decreases with increasing sheet
thickness & clearance.
• c = 2-10% of the sheet thickness.
• As the punch speed increases, heat generated by plastic deform is
confined to smaller zone; therefore the shear zone is narrower, and the
surface is smoother and exhibits less burr formation.
• Burr height increases with increasing clearance and ductility of sheet
metal.
• Edge quality improve with increasing punch speed (10-12m/s)

Figure 16.3 (a) Effect of the clearance, c, between punch and die on the deformation zone
in shearing. As the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die rather
than be sheared. In practice, clearances usually range between 2 and 10% of the thickness
of the sheet. (b) Microhardness (HV) contours for a 6.4-mm (0.25-in.) thick AISI 1020 hot-
rolled steel in the sheared region. Source: After H.P Weaver and K.J. Weinmann.
 Shearaing Force and Shearing Operations

• Max Punch force, F = 0.7 TL(UTS)

Where: T = sheet thickness, L = total sheared length.
• As clearance increases, punch force decreases, and wear on
dies & punches decreases.
Shearing operations
• Die cutting: a shearing process that consists of the following
operations (F16.4): Perforating – parting – notching – lancing.

Figure 16.4 (a) Punching (piercing) and blanking. (b) Examples of various die-cutting
operations on sheet metal.
 Shearing Operations
1) Piercing - The typical punching operation, in
which a cylindrical punch pierces a hole into the
sheet.
2) Slotting - A punching operation that forms
rectangular holes in the sheet. Sometimes
described as piercing despite the different shape. 2
3) Perforating - Punching a close arrangement of a 1
large number of holes in a single operation.
4) Notching - Punching the edge of a sheet, forming
a notch in the shape of a portion of the punch.
5) Nibbling - Punching a series of small overlapping
slits or holes along a path to cutout a larger
contoured shape. This eliminates the need for a 3 4
custom punch and die but will require secondary
operations to improve the accuracy and finish of
the feature.
6) Lancing - Creating a partial cut in the sheet, so
that no material is removed. The material is left
attached to be bent and form a shape, such as a
tab, vent, or louver. 5 6
7) Slitting - Cutting straight lines in the sheet. No
scrap material is produced.
8) Parting - Separating a part from the remaining
sheet, by punching away the material between
parts.
7 8
 Fine-Blanking
• Very smooth and square edges can be produced by fine
blanking (Fig. 16.5a).
• A V-shaped stinger or impingement mechanically locks the
sheet tightly in place and prevents the type of distortion of
the material shown in Figs. 16.2b and 16.3.
• Clearances: 1% sheet thick, Sheet thick: 0.5 to 13mm,
Dim tolerances: ±0.025 – 0.05mm

Figure 16.5 (a) Comparison of sheared edges produced by conventional (left) and
by fine-blanking (right) techniques. (b) Schematic illustration of one setup for fine
blanking. Source: Courtesy of Feintool U.S. Operations.
 Slitting

Slitting (F16.6): blades follow either a straight line or

circular or curved path.
Two types of slitting equipment:
1. Driven type: powered blades.
2. Pull-through type: strip is pulled through idling blades

Figure 16.6 Slitting with rotary knives. This process is similar to opening cans.
 Steel Rules and Nibbling
Steel Rules:
• Soft metals (as Well as paper, leather, and
rubber) can be blanked with a steel-rule die.
• The die consists of a thin strip of hardened steel
bent into the shape to be produced.
• The die is pressed against the sheet, which rests
on the flat surface, and it shears the sheet along
the shape of the steel rule.
Nibbling:
• a machine called a nibbler moves a small
straight punch up and down rapidly into a die.
• A sheet is fed through the gap and many
overlapping holes are made which forms the
desired path.
• Very high flexibility and intricate slots and
notches can be made.
• Economical for small production runs because of
no special dies and punches.
 Tailor-Welded Blanks
Scrap in shearing: as high as %30 on large stampings.
Scrap can be reduced by proper arrangement the shapes on the
sheet to be cut (nesting)

Figure 16.7 Production of an outer side panel of a car body by laser butt-
welding and stamping. Source: After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.
 Characteristics and Type of Shearing Dies

• Clearances: depend on
1. Type of material, its temper
2. Thickness and size of blank
3. Blank’s proximity to edges of original sheet
• The thicker the sheet is, the larger the Clearances must be.
• Small holes require more clearance than larger ones.
• Clearance range: 2-8% typical, may be as small as 1% or as
large as 30%.
• Shaving process (F16.9): extra material from rough sheared
edges is trimmed.
• As a general guidelines, a) clearances for soft materials are less
than those for harder grades; (b) the thicker the sheet, the larger
the clearance must be; and (c) as the ratio of hole diameter to
sheet thickness decreases, clearances should be larger.
 The Shaving Process

Figure 16.9 Schematic illustrations of the shaving process. (a) Shaving a sheared
edge. (b) Shearing and shaving combined in one stroke.
 Shear Angles
Punch & die shape: beveling suitable for shearing thick
blanks, because it reduces force at beginning of stroke,
lower noise.

Figure 16.10 Examples of the use of shear angles on punches and dies.
 16.2 Shearing - Dies

• Compound dies: several operations on the same strip

performed in one stroke at one station (F16.11).
• Simple shapes are made because the process is slow
and the dies become much more expensive.
• Progressive dies: sheet metal is fed through as coil
strip, and different operation is performed at the same
station with each stroke of a series of punches
(F16.11c).
• Transfer dies: sheet metal undergoes different
operations at different stations, which are arranged
along straight line or circular path.
• Tool & die materials: tool steels for shearing, carbides
for high production rates
 Compound
Die and
Progressive
Die

Figure 16.11 Schematic illustrations: (a) before and (b) after blanking a common washer in a
compound die. Note the separate movements of the die (for blanking) and the punch (for
punching the hole in the washer). (c) Schematic illustration of making a washer in a
progressive die. (d) Forming of the top piece of an aerosol spray can in a progressive die.
Note that the part is attached to the strip until the last operation is completed.
 Miscellaneous Methods of Cutting Sheet Metal
• Band saw –metal material removal process that
produces chips as in other machining
• Flame cutting –especially for thick steel plates, as in
shipbuilding
• Laser-beam cutting –newer process used with
computer controlled equipment
• Plasma cutting –high energy plasma formed by
electric arc between tool and work material
• Friction sawing –disk or blade that rubs against sheet
or plate at high speeds
• Water-jet cutting –for metallic and non-metallic
workpieces
 sheet metal characteristics
• Elongation: high uniform elongation is desirable for good formability.
• At necking, true strain = strain hardening exponent, n; thus high n value
indicates large uniform elongation.
• Necking: localized or diffuse, depending on strain rate sensitivity (m) of
material. The higher the value of m, the more diffuse the necking becomes.
• Yield point elongation: after material yields, the sheet stretches farther in
certain regions without any increase in the lower yield point, while other
regions have not yet yielded, producing the so called Lueder’s band [strain
marks].
• Lueder’s band: elongated depressions on surface of sheet.
• To avoid these marks, eliminate or reduce yield point elongation, by reducing
thickness of sheet 0.5% to 1.5% by cold rolling.
• Because of strain aging, however, the yield point elongation reappears after
a few days at RT. To prevent aging, material should formed within a certain
time limit.
• Anisotropy: two types:
• Crystallographic anisotropy: preferred orientation of the grains.
• Mechanical fibering: alignment of impurities, inclusions, and voids
throughout the thickness of the sheet.
• Grain size: the coarser the grain, the rougher is the surface appearance.
• An ASTM grain size of 7 or finer is preferred for general sheet metal forming
operations.
Characteristics of Metals Used in Sheet-Forming
 Sheet Metal

Figure 16.12 (a) Yield-point elongation in a sheet-metal specimen. (b) Luder’s bands
in a low-carbon steel sheet. (c) Stretcher strains at the bottom of a steel can for
household products. Source: (b) Courtesy of Caterpillar Inc.
 Formability Tests for Sheet Metals
• Formability: ability of sheet metal to undergo the desired shape change without
such failures as necking or tearing.
1. Cupping tests: sheet metal specimen is clamped between two circular flat dies,
steel ball or round punch is pushed hydraulically into the sheet metal until a crack
begins to appear.
• The greater the value is of the punch depth d, the greater is the formability of the
sheet.

Figure 16.13 (a) A cupping test (the Erichsen test) to determine the formability of sheet
metals. (b) Bulge-test results on steel sheets of various widths. The specimen farthest
left is subjected to, basically, simple tension. The specimen farthest right is subjected to
equal biaxial stretching. Source: Courtesy of Inland Steel Company.
 Formability Tests for Sheet Metals

2. Forming Limit Diagram (FLD)

• Sheet is marked with grid pattern of circles (2.5-5mm diam).
• Blank is stretched over a punch, and the deformation of
circles is observed and measured in regions where necking
and tearing has occurred.
• To develop unequal stretching, specimens are cut to varying
widths (F16.13b).
• Square specimen produces equal biaxial stretching
• Narrow specimen approaches a state of uniaxial stretching.
• After a series of such tests is performed at different widths,
FLD showing the boundaries between failure and safe regions
is constructed (F16.14)
 Formability Tests for Sheet Metals

• Data obtained from different locations in each of

the samples shown in F16.13b are plotted as in
F16.14b.
• The higher the curve, the better the formability of
the material.
• A compressive minor strain is associated with a
higher major strain than is a tensile minor strain
of the same magnitude. Thus, it’s desirable for
the minor strain to be –ve.
• The thicker the sheet, the higher its formability
curve, and the more formable it is.
 Forming Limit Diagram

Figure 16.14 (a) Strains in deformed circular grid patterns. (b) Forming-limit diagrams (FLD)
for various sheet metals. Although the major strain is always positive (stretching), the minor
strain may be either positive or negative. In the lower left of the diagram, R is the normal
anisotropy of the sheet, as described in Section 16.4. Source: After S .S Hecker and A. K.
Ghosh.
 Deformation and Tearing in Sheet Metal During Forming

Figure 16.15 The deformation of the grid pattern and the tearing of sheet metal during
forming. The major and minor axes of the circles are used to determine the coordinates
on the forming-limit diagram in Fig. 16.14b. Source: After S. P. Keeler.
 Bending Sheets, Plates, and Tubes
• As shown in F16.16, the outer fibers of material are in tension,
while inner fibers are in compression.
• Because of Poisson’s ratio, width of part (bend length, L) in the
outer region is smaller, and in the inner region it is larger, than
the original width (F16.17c)

Figure 16.16
Bending
terminology.
Note that the
bend radius is
measured to the
inner surface of
the bent part.
 Bending Sheets, Plates, and Tubes

• Bending allowance, Lb: length of neutral axis in the bend and is

used to determine the blank length for a bent part
Lb = a (R + kT).
K = 0.33 for R<2T to 0.5 for R>2T
1
• Engineering strain, e
(2R /T )  1
• As R/T decreases, tensile strain at outer fiber increases, and the
material cracks.
• Minimum bend radius (MBR) [R]: Radius at which a crack
appears on the outer surface of the bend,

Where: r = tensile reduction of area

• To increase the bendability of metals, increase their tensile
reduction of area either by heating or by bending in a high-
pressure environment.
 Bendability
Bendability depends on:
A. Tensile reduction of area-Ductility- (r); As (r) increases,
Bendability increases.
B. The edge condition of the sheet; bendability decreases
as edge roughness increases.
C. The amount, shape, and hardness of inclusions present
in the sheet metal

Figure 16.17 (a) and (b) The effect of elongated inclusions stringers) on cracking as a function
of the direction of bending with respect to the original rolling direction of the sheet. (c) Cracks
on the outer surface of an aluminum strip bent to an angle of 90 degrees. Note also the
narrowing of the top surface in the bend area (due to Poisson effect).
 Minimum Bend Radius

Figure 16.18 Relationship between R/T ratio and tensile reduction of area for sheet metals.
Note that sheet metal with 50% tensile reduction of area can be bent over itself in a process
like the folding of a piece of paper without cracking. Source: After J. Datsko and C. T.
Yang.
 Bending sheet and plate – spring-back

Figure 16.19 Springback in bending. The part tends to recover elastically after bending,
and its bend radius becomes larger. Under certain conditions, it is possible for the final
bend angle to be smaller than the original angle (negative springback).
Methods of Reducing or Eliminating Springback

Figure 16.20 Methods of reducing or eliminating springback in bending

operations. Source: After V. Cupka, T. Nakagawa, and H. Tyamoto.
 Bending sheet and plate – spring-back
2
• Max bending force, kY LT
P
W
• For a V die, the bending force can be
approximated by: 2
(UTS )LT
P Bending Force
W
• This equation applies to situations in which the P
kYLT 2
punch radius and sheet thickness are small W
compared to die opening, W. where
k = 0.3 for wiping die,
k = 0.7 for a U - die,
k = 1.3 for a V - die

Figure 16.21 Common die-bending operations

showing the die-opening dimension, W, used in
calculating bending forces.
 Miscellaneous Bending and Related Operations

Bending in 4-slide machine: This

process is useful in making seamed
tubing, fasteners and various
machinery components

Roll bending: plates are bent

using a set of rolls. By adjusting
distance between three rolls, diff
curvatures obtained. boilers,
cylindrical pressure vessels,

Figure 16.22 Examples of various bending

operations.
 Miscellaneous Bending and Related Operations

1. Press brake forming: long dies in a mechanical or

hydraulic press.
– Suitable for small prod runs
– Dies: carbon steel or gray-iron

Figure 16.23 (a) through (e) Schematic illustrations of various bending operations in a
press brake. (f) Schematic illustration of a press brake. Source: Courtesy of Verson
Allsteel Company.
 Miscellaneous Bending and Related Operations
Beading: periphery of sheet metal is bent into the cavity of a die
The bead imparts stiffness to the part by increasing the moment of
inertia of that section. Also, beads improve the appearance of the part
and eliminate exposed sharp edges that can be hazardous.

Figure 16.24 (a) Bead forming with a single die. (b) and (c) Bead
forming with two dies in a press brake.
 Miscellaneous Bending and Related Operations
• Flanging: a process of bending the edges of sheet metals, usually
to 90 degree. In shrink flanging (F16.25a, flange is subjected to
comp hoop stresses. In stretch flanging, flange edges are subjected
to tensile stresses.
• Dimpling (F6.25b): 1st a hole is punched, then is expanded into a
flange. Flanges may be produced by piercing with a sharp punch
Figure 16.25 Various
flanging operations. (a)
Flanges on a flat sheet.
(b) Dimpling. (c) The
piercing of sheet metal to
form a flange. In this
operation, a hole does
not have to be pre-
punched before the
punch descends. Note,
however, the rough
edges along the
circumference of the
flange. (d) The flanging
of a tube. Note the
thinning of the edges of
the flange.
 Miscellaneous Bending and Related Operations

Roll Forming: metal strip is bent in stages by passing it through a series

of rolls. Sheet thickness: 0.125-20mm. Forming speeds: below 1.5m/s.
Rolls: carbon steel or gray iron, may be chromium plated.

Figure 16.26 (a) Schematic illustration of the roll-forming process. (b)

Examples of roll-formed cross-sections. Source: (b) Courtesy of Sharon
Custom Metal Forming, Inc.
 Tube bending and forming

Figure 16.27 Methods of bending tubes. Internal mandrels or filling of tubes with
particulate materials such as sand are often necessary to prevent collapse of the tubes
during bending. Tubes also can be bent by a technique consisting of a stiff, helical tension
spring slipped over the tube. The clearance between the OD of the tube and the ID of the
spring is small, thus the tube cannot kink and the bend is uniform.
 Tube bending and forming- Bulging
Bulging: placing a tabular, conical, or curvilinear part into a slit-female
die and then expanding it, usually with polyurethane plug (F16.28).
Punch is then retracted, the plug returns to its original shape, and the
formed part is removed

Figure 16.28 (a) The bulging of a tubular part with a flexible plug. Water pitchers
can be made by this method. (b) Production of fittings for plumbing by expanding
tubular blanks under internal pressure. The bottom of the piece is then punched
out to produce a “T.” Source: After J. A. Schey.
Manufacturing of Bellows

Figure 16.29 Steps in manufacturing a bellows.

 Stretch-Forming Process

• Sheet metal is clamped along its edges and then stretched over a
die or form block, which moves upward, downward, or sideways
(F16.30)
• Dies: zinc alloys, steel, plastics, or wood.

Figure 16.30 Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming process. Aluminum skins

for aircraft can be made by this method. Source: Courtesy of Cyril Bath Co.
 Deep Drawing

• A Process in which a punch forces a flat sheet metal

blank into a die cavity.
• Drawing variables:
1. Properties of sheet metal.
2. Ratio of blank diameter (Da) to punch diameter (Dp).
3. Clearance © between punch & die.
4. Punch radius Rp.
5. Die corner radius (Rd).
6. Blank holder force.
7. Friction and lubrication.
• The punch force increases with increasing in strength, diameter,
and thickness of sheet metal blank.
 Deep-Drawing

D  
Fmax  DpT UTS   0.7
o

Dp  




Figure 16.32 (a) Schematic illustration of the deep-drawing process on a circular sheet-
metal blank. The stripper ring facilitates the removal of the formed cup from the punch.
(b) Process variables in deep drawing. Except for the punch force, F, all the parameters
indicated on the figure are independent variables.
 Can
Manufacture

Figure 16.31 The metal-

forming processes
involved in manufacturing
a two-piece aluminum
beverage can.
 Deep drawing
• Ironing: the process of thinning the walls of a
drawn cylinder by passing it between a punch
and die whose separation is less than the
original wall thickness. Aluminum beverage
cans, undergo two or three ironing operations in
one stroke in which the drawn cup is pushed
through a set of ironing rings.
• Drawing without blank holder:Do – Dp < 5T.
• Embossing: shallow or moderate draws, made
with male and Female shallow matching dies.
• Dies: tool steels and cast irons
• Equipment: double action hydraulic press or
mechanical press
• Punch speeds: 0.1-0.3m/s.
 Embossing with Two Dies

Figure 16.37 An embossing operation with two dies. Letters, numbers,

and designs on sheet-metal parts can be produced by this process.
 Aluminum Beverage Cans

(a)

Figure 16.38 (a) Aluminum beverage cans. Note the excellent surface finish.
(b) Detail of the can lid showing integral rivet and scored edges for the pop-top.
 Rubber Forming and Hydroforming
Bending and Embossing of Sheet Metal: the outer surface of the sheet is
protected from damage or scratches, because it is not in contact with a
hard metal surface during forming. Pressures in rubber forming are
typically on the order of 10 MPa

Figure 16.39 Examples of the bending and embossing of sheet metal with a metal
punch and with a flexible pad serving as the female die. Source: Courtesy of
Polyurethane Products Corporation.
 Rubber Forming and Hydroforming

Hydroform process:
Deeper draws are obtained in deep drawing, because pressure around
rubber membrane forces the cup against punch.

Advantages of Rubber
forming: (1) low tooling
cost. (2) flexibility and ease
of operation. (3) low die
wear. (4) no damage to
surface of sheet. (5)
capability to form complex
shapes

Figure 16.40 The hydroform (or fluid-forming) process. Note that in contrast to the
ordinary deep-drawing process, the pressure in the dome forces the cup walls against the
punch. The cup travels with the punch; in this way, deep drawability is improved.
 Rubber Forming and Hydroforming

Tube-
Hydroforming

Figure 16.41 (a) Schematic illustration of

the tube-hydrofroming process. (b) Example
of tube-hydroformed parts. Automotive
exhaust and structural components, bicycle
frames, and hydraulic and pneumatic fittings (b)
are produced through tube hydroforming.
Source: Courtesy of Schuler GmBH.
 Spinning - Conventional spinning (CS)
• Spinning involves the forming of axisymmetric parts over a mandrel, by
use of various tools and rollers.
• CS: a circular blank of flat or preformed sheet metal is held against a
mandrel and rotated, while a rigid tool deforms and shapes the material
over mandrel (F16.40a).
• Tool activated manually or by computer controlled mechanism.
• Suitable for conical and curvilinear shapes.
• Part diameters: up to 6m.

Figure 16.42 (a) Schematic illustration of the conventional spinning process.

(b) Types of parts conventionally spun. All parts are axisymmetric.
 Shear-Spinning and Tube-Spinning
• An axisymmetric conical or curvilinear shape is produced, while
maintaining part’s max diameter and reducing its thickness (F16.41a).
• Part diameter: up to 3m.
• Little waste material, relatively short cycle time (few seconds).
• Considerable heat is generated, due to large deformation involved, thus
water based fluids are required.
• Spinnability: max reduction in thickness to which a part can be subjected
by spinning without fracture.
• Spinnability is related to tensile reduction of area.

Figure 16.43 (a) Schematic illustration of the shear-spinning process for making
conical parts. The mandrel can be shaped so that curvilinear parts can be spun. (b)
and (c) Schematic illustrations of the tube-spinning process
 Explosive Forming
• Sheet metal blank is clamped over a die, and entire assembly is lowered into a
tank filled with water. a
• Explosive charge is placed at a certain height.  W 
3

• The peak pressure, p (psi), in water is given by: p  k  

 R 
– K = constant which depends on type of explosive (21600 for TNT).
– W = weight of explosive charge (lb), R = standoff (ft)
– a = constant, generally taken to be 1.15
• Steel plates 25mm thick and 3.6m diameter
• Tubes: wall thickness of 25mm have been pulged
• Dies: Al alloys, steel, ductile iron, zinc alloys, reinforced concrete, wood, plastics,
composite materials.

Figure 16.45 (a) Schematic illustration of the explosive forming process.

(b) Illustration of the confined method of the explosive bulging of tubes.