The History and Scope of

Microbiology

Prof. Khaled H. Abu-Elteen

Hashemite University
 Microbiology is the study of microorganisms
usually less than 1mm in diameter which
requires some form of magnification
( Microscope) to be seen clearly
 Examples:
 Viruses
 Bacteria

 Fungi

 Algae

 Protozoa's
 Some organisms studies by microbiologists
CAN be visualized without the aid of
amplification [bread molds (fungus) and
filamentous algae]
 These organisms are included in the discipline of
microbiology because of similarities in properties
and techniques used to study them
 Techniques necessary to isolate and culture
microorganisms:
 Isolation
 Sterilization
 Culture in artificial media
 Microbiology may be interested in specific types
of organisms:
 Virology - viruses

 Bacteriology - bacteria

 Phycology - algae

 Mycology - fungi

 Protozoology - protozoa
 Microbiologists may have a more applied
focus:
 Medical microbiology, including
immunology
 Food and Dairy microbiology

 Public Health microbiology (Epidemiology)

 Industrial microbiology

 Agricultural microbiology
 Microbiologists may be interested in various
characteristics or activities of microorganisms:
 Microbial morphology

 Microbial cytology

 Microbial physiology

 Microbial ecology

 Microbial genetics and molecular biology

 Microbial taxonomy
II. Historical Perspectives
ROBERT HOOKE

One of the most important discoveries

of biology occurred in 1665, with
the help of a crude microscope,
when Robert Hooke stated that life’s
smallest structural units were cells.
ANTONY VAN LEEUWENHOEK

 First to observe living

microbes
 His single-lens
magnified 50-300X
magnification
 Between 1674-1723
he wrote series of
papers describing his
observations of
bacteria, algae,
protozoa, and fungi
(Animalcules)
ANTONY VAN LEEUWENHOEK
 III. Spontaneous Generation
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION

Early belief that some forms of life

could arise from “vital forces”
present in nonliving or
decomposing matter, abiogenesis.
In other words, organisms can
arise form non-living matter.
LOUIS JABLOT

In 1670 Jablot conducted an

experiment in which he divided a
hay infusion that had been boiled
into two containers: a heated
container that was closed to the air
and a heated container that was
freely open to the air. Only the
open vessel developed
microorganisms. This further
helped to disprove abiogenesis.
REDI’S and JABLOT’S
EXPERIMENTS
 Disproved by:
 Schwann, Friedrich Schroder and von Dusch
(1830s) – Air allowed to enter flask but only
after passing through a heated tube or sterile
wool
 John Tyndall (1820-1893) – Omission of dust
 no growth. Demonstrated heat resistant
forms of bacteria (endospores)
LOUIS PASTEUR (1822 - 1895)
 Disproved spontaneous
generation of microbes
by preventing “dust
particles” from reaching
the sterile broth
 In 1861 completes
experiments that lays to
rest spontaneous
generation.
 Showed microbes caused
fermentation and
spoilage
PASTEUR’S EXPERIMENT

trapped airborne organisms in cotton; he also

heated the necks of flasks, drawing them out into
long curves, sterilized the media, and left the flasks
open to the air.
In this way Pasteur disproved the theory of
spontaneous generation
 IV. Role of Micoorganisms in
Disease
 Demonstrations that micoorganisms
cause disease

 Oliver Holmes (1773 - 1843)

 showed that sepsis could be transmitted by hands of
medical student and may cause disease
 M. J. Berkeley (ca. 1845)
 demonstrated that the Great Potato Blight of
Ireland was caused by a Fungus
 Louis Pasteur (1822 - 1895)
 showed that the pébrine disease of silkworms was
caused by a protozoan parasite
 Edward Jenner (ca. 1798): Develop the first
Vaccine and used a vaccination procedure
to protect individuals from smallpox
 Louis Pasteur
 developed other vaccines including those for
chicken cholera, anthrax, and rabies
 History
 1796 – First vaccine (smallpox)
Edward Jenner
History
 1885 - Vaccine against

Rabies
Louis Pasteur
 Robert Koch (1843 - 1910),
 using criteria developed by his teacher, Jacob
Henle (1809-1895), established the
relationship between Bacillus anthracis and
anthrax.
 His criteria became known as Koch’s
Postulates and are still used to establish the
link between a particular microorganism and
a particular disease:
 History
 1884 Koch’s Postulates of
Disease Transmission
Robert Koch
Koch’s Postulates
 The causative (etiological) agent must be
present in all affected organisms but
absent in healthy individuals
 The agent must be capable of being
isolated and cultured in pure form
 When the cultured agent is introduced to
a healthy organism, the same disease
must occur
 The same causative agent must be
isolated again from the affected host
Development of Culture Media
 Why?
 To enable the isolation of pure cultures (only
one type of organism)
 Especially important during Koch’s period
 Gelatin not useful as solidifying agent (melts
at >28 ºC and some bacteria hydrolyze it
with enzymes)
 Fannie Hesse, the wife of one of Koch’s
assistants, proposed using agar
 Not digested by most bacteria
 Melts at 100 ºC
 Used today - ~2% in solid media
 Richard Petri, another of Koch’s assistants,
developed the Petri dish
Development of Vaccines and
Antisera

 Edward Jenner in 1796

discovered that cowpox
(vaccinia) induced protection
against human smallpox
 Called procedure vaccination
 Vaccination:
 Inoculation of healthy individuals
with weakened (or attenuated)
forms of microorganisms, that
would otherwise cause disease, to
provide protection, or active
immunity from disease upon later
exposure.
 Pasteur and Roux reported that
incubating cultures longer than
normal in the lab resulted in
ATTENUATED bacteria that could
no longer cause disease.
 Working with chicken cholera
(caused by Pasteurella multocida),
they noticed that animals injected
with attenuated cultures were
resistant to the disease.
 Pasteur and Chamberland
developed other vaccines:
 Attenuated anthrax vaccine
 Chemical and heat treatment
(potassium bichromate)
 Attenuated rabies vaccine
 Propagated the virus in rabbit
following injection of infected brain
and spinal cord extracts
 Passive immunization
 Work by Emil von Behring (1845-1917)
and Shibasaburo Kitasato (1852-1931)
 Antibodies raised to inactivated
diphtheria toxin by injection different
host (rabbit) with the toxin (a toxoid
form)
 Antiserum recovered
 Contains antibodies specific for the toxin

 Protection from disease when injected

non -immune subject.
John Tyndall
 JOHN TYNDALL (1820 – 1893)
 In 1876 discovered that there were two different types of
bacteria.
 a) Heat sensitive or heat labile forms (vegetative cells)
easily destroyed by boiling
 b) Heat resistant types known as an endospore
 Tyndall demonstrated that alternate process of heating &
cooling if repeated five times, can kill all the endospores.
 This is known as Sterilization process or Tyndallization
FERDINAND COHN

In 1876, a German botanist,

Ferdinand Cohn, also discovered
“heat-resistant forms of bacteria”.
This bacteria are now termed
endospores.( Bacillus species and
Clostridium species)
Anthrax bacillus
GERM THEORY OF DISEASE
GOLDEN AGE OF MICROBIOLOGY

The period from 1860 to 1900 is often

named the Golden Age of
Microbiology. During this period,
rapid advances, spear-headed by
Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch, led
to the establishment of
microbiology as a science.
LOUIS PASTEUR

In 1864 Pasteur established the

relationship between microbes and
disease in preventing wine from
spoiling by using the process
termed pasteurization. This process
kills bacteria in the alcohol by heat,
thus preventing the formation of
acetic acid (vinegar).
LOUIS PASTEUR

His discover of pasteurization, lead

Pasteur to introduce the “germ
theory of disease” in 1864. Pasteur
stated that diseases are caused by
the growth of microbes in the body
and not by sins, bad character, or
poverty, etc.
 Louis Pasteur
1822 – 1895

*Developed the germ

theory in 1798
*Also developed vaccine
against anthrax.
*Pasteurization technique
*Developed the germ theory
of disease

“Father of bacteriology and immunology”

 Joseph Lister (1827 - 1912)
 developed a system of surgery designed to
prevent microorganisms from entering
wounds – phenol (Carbolic Acid) sprayed in
air around surgical incision
 Decreased number of post-operative
infections in patients
 his published findings (1867) transformed
the practice of surgery
History: Joseph Lister

 1867 Antiseptic Surgery( Carbolic acid- Phenol)

Robert Koch
1843 – 1910
 In 1860 developed an
elaborate technique
to isolate & identify
specific Pathogens
that cause specific
diseases.
 He isolated the
anthrax bacterium.
GERM THEORY OF DISEASE

In 1876 Robert Koch proved the

“germ theory of disease” by showing
that bacteria actually caused disease.
Koch established a sequence of
experimental steps for directly relating
a specific microbe to a specific disease
called KOCH’S POSTULATES
ROBERT KOCH

 Developed pure culture

methods.
 Identified cause of anthrax
( Bacillus anthrax) , TB
( Mycobacterium
tubercullosis) , & cholera
( Vibrio cholera).
PAUL EHRLICH

In the 1890’s Ehrlich proposed a theory of

immunity in which antibodies were
responsible for immunity( Antitoxin). In
addition, he is known as the father of
modern chemotherapy. He speculated
about some “magic bullet” that would
selectively find and destroy pathogens but
not harm the host (Selective Toxicity). He
also develop a staining procedure to
identify tubercle bacilli.
ALEXANDER FLEMING

In 1928 Fleming observed that the

growth of the bacterium
staphyloccus aureus was inhibited
in the areas surrounding the colony
of a mold that had contaminated a
Petri plate. The mold was identified
as Penicillium notatum, and its
active compound was named
penicillin.
 History

 1929 Discovery of Penicillin

(first antibiotic)
Alexander Fleming
 History
 Walter Hesse ( 1846-1911): Used Agar as
a solidifying agent to harden media. Agar
is extracted from seaweeds red algae.
 Rechard Petri ( 1852-1921): Used agar
dish to provide a large area to grow.
 Christian Gram ( 1853-1935): Staining
method that demonstrate bacteria and
distinguish between Gram positive and
Gram negative bacteria.
 History
 Raymond Sabouraud ( 1890-1910):
Develop culture media to study yeast and
molds.
 Dimitri Ivanovski (1892): Tobacco mosaic
virus could pass through filters used to
remove bacteria.
 Selman Waksman (1940): Discovered a
number of antibiotic such as Tetracycline
and Streptomycin.
 History
 Reska (1938) – First
Electron Microscope

 The electron microscope is capable

of magnifying biological specimens
up to one million times. These
computer enhanced images of 1.
smallpox, 2. herpes simplex, and 3.
mumps are magnified, respectively,
150,000, 150,000 and 90,000 times.
 To study detail structures of
viruses.
WATSON and CRICK, FRANKLIN,
and WILKINS

In 1953 Watson and Crick determined

the structure of DNA. They used
their research, together with the
research of Franklin and Wilkins to
determine the structure of the DNA
molecule.
DNA
 V.
How Microorganism Affect
Their Environment
 Louis Pasteur
 demonstrated that alcoholic fermentations were the
result of microbial activity,
 that some organisms could decrease alcohol yield and
sour the product, and
 that some fermentations were aerobic and some
anaerobic;
 he also developed the process of pasteurization to
preserve wine during storage
 VI. Microorganisms in the 20th
Century
 Important Early Discoveries

 George W. Beadle and Edward L. Tatum (ca. 1941)

 studied the relationship between genes and enzymes
using the bread mold, Neurospora
 Precursor ornithine  citrulline  arginine

 One gene, one polypeptide hypothesis

 Salvadore Luria and Max Delbruck (ca. 1943)

 Demonstrated spontaneous gene mutations in
bacteria (not directed by the environment)
 Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. MacLeod, and
Maclyn McCarty (1944)
 Following initial studies by Frederick Griffith
(1928) they provided evidence that
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was the genetic
material and carried genetic information
during transformation
 Worked with Streptococcus pneumoniae
(rough and smooth)
 In the 1970s new discoveries in microbiology
led to the development of recombinant DNA
technology and genetic engineering
 There are two types of microorganisms:
 Prokaryotes
 have a relatively simple morphology and lack a
true membrane-bound nucleus
 Eukaryotes
 are morphologically complex and have a true,
membrane-bound nucleus
 Organisms can be divided into five kingdoms:
 the Monera or Procaryotae,

 Protista,

 Fungi,

 Animalia, and

 Plantae