Principles of Measuring Instruments -B

Presenter: Dr. Kenedy Aliila Greyson

Email: [email protected]
Mobile: +255-654 149 540
First-Order Systems
• A first-order system has a differential equation of the
form

where τ is the time constant and k the steady-

state gain.

• The Laplace transform of this equation can be

written as:

Control System Modelling 2

• and so a transfer function of the form:

• When a first-order system is subject to a unit

impulse input then X(s) = 1 and the output transform
Y(s) is

Control System Modelling 3

FIGURE First-order system; and pole plot

Control System Modelling 4

• Hence, since we have the transform in the form
gives:

The output is an exponential

decay.

Figure : Output with a unit impulse input to

a first-order system
Control System Modelling 5
• The output rises to its maximum value at time t = 0
and then after 1τ it drops to 0.37 of the initial value,
after 2τ it is 0.14 of the initial value and after 3τ it is
0.05 of the initial value.
• Thus by about a time equal to 4τ the output is
effectively zero.
• The exponential term tends to a zero value as the time
t tends to an infinite value.

Control System Modelling 6

• When a first-order system is subject to a unit step
input then , and the output transform Y(s)
is:

Note that,

• Hence, since we have the transform in the form

Control System Modelling 7

• Figure shows how the output varies with time.
• Initially, at time t = 0, the output is zero.

Control System Modelling 8

• It then rises to 0.63 of the steady-state value after 1τ,
then 0.86 of the steady-state value after 2τ and 0.95 of
the steady-state value after 3τ.
• After 4τ the output is effectively at the steady-state
value of k, the exponential term in the above equation
becoming zero as time t tends to infinity.

Control System Modelling 9

Example
• A circuit has a resistance R in series with a capacitance
C. The differential equation relating the input v and
output vc, i.e. the voltage across the capacitor, is:

Determine the output of the system when there is a 3

V impulse input.

Solution
As a function of s the differential equation becomes:

Control System Modelling 10

• Hence the transfer function is

• The output when there is 3 V impulse input is:

• Hence, since we have the transform in the form

gives:

Control System Modelling 11

First-order system parameters
• The following are parameters used to describe the
transient performance of a first-order system while it
is moving towards the steady-state value:
1. Time constant
When the time t = τ then we
Thus, the time constant τ for a first-order system
when subject to a step input is the time taken for the
output to reach 0.63, of the steady-state value.

Control System Modelling 12

• The time constant can also be evaluated from the pole
plot .
• we can say the pole is located at the reciprocal of the
time constant, and the farther the pole from the
imaginary axis, the faster the transient response.

Control System Modelling 13

2. Delay time
The delay time td is the time required for the output
response to reach 50% of its steady-state value. Thus,
since k is the final value, the time taken to reach 50%
of this value is given by:

= 0.693τ

Control System Modelling 14

3. Rise time
The rise time tr, is the time required for the output to
rise from 10% to 90% of its steady-state value. Note
that the specification is not always in terms of 10%
to 90%, sometimes it is 0% to 100%.
Since k is the steady-state value then the time taken
to reach 10% of that value is:

Control System Modelling 15

 The time taken to reach 90% of the steady-state
value is given by:

• Hence the rise time is:

= 2.2τ

Control System Modelling 16

Settling Time, ts
• Settling time is defined as the time for the response to
reach, and stay within, 2% of its final value.
• Letting c(t) = 0.98 in and solving for
time, t, we find the settling time to be

HW-2 Question 1
A system has a transfer function,
Find the:
time constant, tc, settling time, ts, and rise time, tr.

Control System Modelling 17

Example
• Determine the delay time and the rise time for a first-
order system with the transfer function:

Comparing the transfer function with

indicates that the steady-state gain is 3 and the time
constant is 2 s.
Thus, the delay time is:

=1.4 s
• the rise time is:

Control System Modelling 18

Second-order systems
• The differential equation for a second-order system is
of the form:

where is the natural angular frequency with

which the system oscillates and is the damping
ratio.
• Hence, for the Laplace transform we have:

Control System Modelling 19

and so a transfer function of

• When a second-order system is subject to a unit step

input, i.e. X(s) = 1/s, then the output transform Y(s) is:

Control System Modelling 20

• There are three different forms of answer to this
equation for the way the output varies with time;
these depending on the value of the damping constant
and whether it gives an overdamped, critically
damped or underdamped system.
• We can determine the condition for these three forms
of output by putting the equation in the form:

• where p1 and p2 are the roots of the denominator

quadratic term, the so termed characteristic equation:

Control System Modelling 21

• Hence, if we use the standard equation to determine
the roots of a quadratic equation, we obtain:

and so the two roots are given by:

Control System Modelling 22

• The important issue in determining the form of the
roots is the value of the square root term and this is
determined by the value of the damping factor

1. >1
With the damping factor greater than 1 the
square root term is real and will factorize.
• To find the inverse transform we can either use
partial fractions to break the expression down into
a number of simple fractions.

Control System Modelling 23

 The output is thus:

• This describes an output which does not oscillate but dies

away with time and thus the system is overdamped.
• As the time t tends to infinity then the exponential terms
tend to zero and the output becomes the steady value of
Since the steady-state value is
k.

Control System Modelling 24

2. ,
with = 1, from

the square root term is zero and so

both roots are real and both the same.
The output equation

then becomes:

Control System Modelling 25

• This equation can be expanded by means of partial
fractions to give:

Hence:

• This is the critically damped condition and describes

an output which does not oscillate but dies away
with time.
• As the time t tends to infinity then the exponential
terms tend to zero and the output tends to the steady-
state value of k.
Control System Modelling 26
3. ,
with C < 1 the square root term does not have a real
value. Using

then gives:

Control System Modelling 27

• where This is an under-damped oscillation.
The angular frequency of the damped oscillation is:

• Only when the damping is very small does the

angular frequency of the oscillation become nearly
the natural angular frequency
• As the time t tends to infinity then the exponential
term tends to zero and so the output tends to the
value k.

Control System Modelling 28

Example
• What will be the state of damping of a system having
the following transfer function and subject to a unit
step input?

• The output Y(s) from such a system is given by:

• For a unit step input and so the output is

given by:

Control System Modelling 29

• The roots of are
Both the roots are real and the same and so the system
is critically damped.

Control System Modelling 30

HW2 Question 1
• A system has an output y related to the input x by the
differential equation:

What will be the output from the system when it is

subject to a unit step input?
Initially both the output and input are zero.

Control System Modelling 31

Second-order system parameters
• For the under-damped oscillations of a system we
have the output y given by:

with the damped natural frequency given by:

• Since
the sine term can be written as:

Control System Modelling 32

 and since is a constant:

• where P and Q are constants. Thus the output can be

written as:

Control System Modelling 33

Figure: Step response of an under damped system

Control System Modelling 34

• The performance of an under-damped second-order
system to a unit step input can be specified by:

1. Rise time
• The rise time tr is the time taken for the response x
to rise from 0 to the steady-state value yss.
This is the time for the oscillating response to
complete a quarter of a cycle, i.e.

Thus:

Control System Modelling 35

• We can thus reduce the rise time by increasing the
damped natural frequency, this value being
determined by the undamped natural angular
frequency and the damping factor, i.e.

and so:

• The rise time is sometimes specified as the time taken

for the response to rise from 10% to 90% of the
steady-state value.

Control System Modelling 36

2. Peak time
• The peak time tp is the time taken for the response to
rise from 0 to the first peak value. This is the time for
the oscillating response to complete one half-cycle,
i.e. Thus:

and so using:

Control System Modelling 37

• When is 1 then the peak time becomes infinite;
this indicates that at critical damping the steady-state
value is never reached but only approached
asymptotically.

3. Overshoot
• The overshoot is the maximum amount by which
the response overshoots the steady-state value and is
thus the amplitude of the first peak.
• The overshoot is often written as a percentage of the
steady-state value.

Control System Modelling 38

• The steady-state value is when t tends to infinity and
thus yss = k. Since y = 0 when t = 0 then, since e° = 1,
then using:

we have:

and so

Control System Modelling 39

• The overshoot occurs at and thus:

becomes:

• The overshoot is the difference between the output

at that time and the steady-state value.
• Hence:

Control System Modelling 40

• Since then we can write

Expressed as a percentage of yss:

Note that the overshoot does not depend on the natural

frequency of the system but only on the damping factor.
Control System Modelling 41
4. Subsidence ratio
• An indication of how fast oscillations decay is provided
by the subsidence ratio or decrement.
• This is the amplitude of the second overshoot divided by
the amplitude of the first overshoot.
• The first overshoot occurs when we have and so:

The second overshoot occurs when

and so:

Control System Modelling 42

• Thus the subsidence ratio is given by:

Control System Modelling 43

5. Settling time
• The settling time ts, is used as a measure of the time
taken for the oscillations to die away.
• It is the time taken for the response to fall within and
remain within some specified percentage of the
steady-state value.
• Thus for the 2% settling time, the amplitude of the
oscillation should fall to be less than 2% of yss.
• We have:

Control System Modelling 44

• with and, as derived earlier
in item 3,
• The amplitude of the oscillation is when y
is a maximum value.
• The maximum values occur when is some
multiple of and thus we have and
• For the 2% settling time, the settling time is when
the maximum amplitude is 2% of i.e.
• Thus:

The value of the settling time if

the specified percentage is 2%.
Control System Modelling 45
• If the specified percentage is 5% the equation
becomes

6. Number of oscillations to settling time

• The time taken to complete one cycle, i.e. the
periodic time, is where is the frequency, and
since then the time to complete one cycle is

• In a settling time of the number of oscillations that

occur is:

Control System Modelling 46

• and thus for a settling time defined for 2% of the
steady-state value:

• Since then:

Control System Modelling 47

• In designing a system the following are the typical
points that are considered:

1. For a rapid response, i.e. small rise time, the natural

frequency must be large.
• Figure shows the types of response obtained to a unit
step input to systems having the same damping factor
of 0.2 but different natural angular frequencies.

Figure: Response of a
unit gain second-order
system to a unit step
input, the damping
factor being the same
for both responses
Control System Modelling 48
• The response time with the natural angular frequency
of 10 rad/s, damped frequency 9.7 rad/s, is much
higher than that with a natural angular frequency of 1
rad/s, damped frequency 0.97 rad/s.

2. The damping factor is typically in the range 0.4 to

0.8 since smaller values give an excessive
overshoot and a large number of oscillations before
the system settles down.

Control System Modelling 49

• Figure shows the effect on the response of a second-
order system of a change of damping factor when the
natural angular frequency remains unchanged.

Control System Modelling 50

Example
• The feedback system shown in the figure has the
transfer function of the forward path as
and the transfer function of the feedback path as 1.
What will be the effect on the system response of
changing the gain K?

Control System Modelling 51

• The transfer function of the closed-loop system is:

• By comparison with the standard form of the transfer

function for a second-order system,

• we have and Thus the rise time

is given by with and so
is:

Control System Modelling 52

• The rise time thus decreases as K increases.
• Thus, increasing the gain decreases the rise time and
so increases the speed of response of the system.

The percentage overshoot is given by:

Control System Modelling 53

• Thus, increasing K results in an increase in the
percentage overshoot.

• The 2% settling time is given by:

from

Thus, the settling time is independent of the gain K.

Control System Modelling 54

 STEADY-STATE ERROR
• Steady-state error is the difference between the input
and the output for a prescribed test input
as t → ∞.
• Evaluating Steady-State Errors
• Let us examine the concept of steady-state errors.

• Test inputs used for steady-state error analysis and

design are:
• Step
• Ramp and
• parabola
Control System Modelling 55
1. Step inputs represent constant position and thus are
useful in determining the ability of the control
system to position itself with respect to a stationary
target, such as a satellite in geostationary orbit.
– An antenna position control is an example of a system
that can be tested for accuracy using step inputs.
2. Ramp inputs represent constant-velocity inputs to a
position control system by their linearly increasing
amplitude.
– They can be used to test an ability to follow a linearly
increasing input to track a constant velocity target.
• E.g. , a position control system that tracks a satellite
that moves across the sky at a constant angular
velocity.
Control System Modelling 56
• In the figure below, a step input and two possible
outputs are shown.
• Output 1 has zero steady-state error, and output 2 has
a finite steady-state error, e2(∞)

Control System Modelling 57

• A similar example is shown in the figure below,
where a ramp input is compared with output 1, which
has zero steady-state error, and output 2, which has a
finite steady-state error, e2(∞), as measured vertically
between the input and output 2 after the transients
have died down.

Control System Modelling 58

• Let us now look at the error from the perspective of
the most general block diagram.

• For unity feedback systems, E(s) is as shown in the

figure.

Control System Modelling 59

Sources of Steady-State Error
• Many steady-state errors in control systems arise
from nonlinear sources, such as backlash in gears or a
motor that will not move unless the input voltage
exceeds a threshold.
• The steady state errors we study here are errors that
arise from the configuration of the system itself and
the type of applied input.

Control System Modelling 60

• Steady-State Error in Terms of T(s)
• Consider the figure above. To find E(s), the error
between the input, R(s), and the output, C(s), we
write

• Although this equation allows us to solve for e(t) at

any time, t, we are interested in the final value of the
error, e(∞) .
Control System Modelling 61
• Applying the final value theorem, which allows us to
use the final value of e(t) without taking the inverse
Laplace transform of E(s), and then letting t approach
infinity, we obtain

Substituting yields

Control System Modelling 62

• The final value theorem is derived from the Laplace
transform of the derivative. Thus,

• For finite steady-state errors, the final value theorem is

valid only if F(s) has poles only in the left half plane and,
at most, one pole at the origin.
• However, correct results that yield steady-state errors that
are infinite can be obtained if F(s) has more than one pole
at the origin.
• If F(s) has poles in the right half-plane or poles on the
imaginary axis other than at the origin, the final value
theorem is invalid.
Control System Modelling 63
PROBLEM:
Find the steady-state error for the system of the
figure below if T(s) =5/(s2 + 7s + 10) and the input is
a unit step.

SOLUTION: From the problem statement, R(s) = 1/s and

T(s) = 5/(s2 + 7s +10).

Control System Modelling 64

• Since T(s) is stable and, subsequently, E(s) does not
have right-half-plane poles other than at the origin,
we can apply the final value theorem.
• Substituting

into Eq.

gives e(∞) = 1/2

Control System Modelling 65

Steady-State Error in Terms of G(s)
• Many times we have the system configured as a unity
feedback system with a forward transfer function, G(s).
• Although we can find the closed-loop transfer function,
T(s), and then proceed as in the previous subsection,
we find more insight for analysis and design by
expressing the steady-state error in terms of G(s) rather
than T(s).

Control System Modelling 66

• Consider the feedback control system shown in
Figure.

• Since the feedback, H(s), equals 1, the system has

unity feedback.
• The implication is that E(s) is actually the error
between the input, R(s), and the output, C(s).

Control System Modelling 67

• Thus, if we solve for E(s), we will have an expression
for the error.

We now apply the final value theorem

Control System Modelling 68

• Equation

allows us to calculate the steady-state error, e(∞)

given the input, R(s), and the system, G(s).
• We now substitute several inputs for R(s)

Step Input
• R(s) = 1/s, we find

Control System Modelling 69

Ramp Input
• R(s) = 1/s2, we obtain

Parabolic Input
• R(s) = 1/s3, we obtain

Control System Modelling 70

PROBLEM:
• Find the steady-state errors for inputs of 5u(t), 5tu(t),
and 5t2u(t), to the system shown in figure below. The
function u(t) is the unit step.

Control System Modelling 71

SOLUTION:
• First, verify that the closed-loop system is a stable.
• Next, for the input 5u(t), whose Laplace transform is
5/s, the steady-state error will be

Control System Modelling 72

• For the input 5tu(t), whose Laplace transform is 5/s2,
the steady-state error

Control System Modelling 73

• For the input 5t2u(t), whose Laplace transform is
10/s3, the steady-state error will be

Control System Modelling 74

Static Error Constants and System Type
• We continue our focus on unity negative feedback
systems and define parameters that we can use as
steady-state error performance specifications,.
– This is the same as we defined damping ratio, natural
frequency, settling time, percent overshoot, and so on as
performance specifications for the transient response.
• These steady-state error performance specifications
are called static error constants.

Control System Modelling 75

Static Error Constants
• In the previous section we derived the following
relationships for steady-state error.
• For a step input, u(t),

• For a ramp input, tu(t),

• For a parabolic input,

Control System Modelling 76

• The three terms in the denominator that are taken to
the limit determine the steady-state error.
• We call these limits static error constants or error
coefficients .
• Individually, their names are:
• Position constant (position error coefficient), Kp,
where

• Velocity constant, (velocity error coefficient) Kv,

where
• Acceleration constant, (acceleration error coefficient)
Ka where
Control System Modelling 77
• Since the static error constant appears in the
denominator of the steady-state error, the value of the
steady-state error decreases as the static error constant
increases.
Steady-State Error via Static Error Constants
• PROBLEM:
For a system of the given figure, evaluate the static
error constants and find the expected error for the
standard step, ramp, and parabolic inputs.

Control System Modelling 78

SOLUTION:
• First verify that all closed-loop systems shown are
indeed stable.

Control System Modelling 79

• Thus, for a step input,

• For a ramp input,

• For a parabolic input,

Control System Modelling 80

System Type
• Let us continue to focus on a unity negative feedback
system.
• The values of the static error constants, again, depend
upon the form of G(s), especially the number of pure
integrations in the forward path.
• Since steady-state errors are dependent upon the
number of integrations in the forward path, we give a
name to this system attribute.

Control System Modelling 81

• For the system in the given in the figure below, we
define system type to be the value of n in the
denominator or, equivalently, the number of pure
integrations in the forward path.
• Therefore, a system with n = 0 is a Type 0 system.
• If n = 1 or n = 2, the corresponding system is a Type
1 or Type 2 system, respectively.

Control System Modelling 82