Chapter 11

11. CALIBRATION
11.1 Standard blocks
11.1.1 Calibration blocks
11.1.2 Reference blocks
11.2 Standard Reflectors
11.2.1 Backwalls
11.2.2 Flat bottomed holes (FBH)
11.2.3 Side drilled hole (SDH)
11.2.4 Notches
11.3 Australian Standard Blocks
11.3.1 Calibration Block 1
11.3.2 Calibration Block 2
11.3.3 Calibration Block 5
11.3.4 Calibration Block 6
11.3.5 Reference Blocks
11.4 Frequency of calibration
11.5 Some points on tickling
11.6 Last Significant Echo technique (LSE)
11.7 Plate roll
11. CALIBRATION
The first step in any ultrasonic test is the process of adjusting an instrument to ensure proper
performance. This process is called the calibration. A predictable and reproducible response
to known reflectors of different sizes and depths within the specially designed sample must
be established before any actual application to the test piece can begin.
These samples known as calibration and reference blocks (standard blocks) should be made
of the same material as the test piece and should have been processed identically to the test
piece.
The user must calibrate the system, which includes the equipment settings, the transducer,
and the test setup, to validate that the desired level of precision and accuracy is achieved.

Reference blocks are used to establish a general level of consistency in measurements and to
help interpret and quantify the information contained in the received signal, as well as to
estimate the size of discontinuities, comparing the signal from the reference standard to that
received from the actual discontinuity. Figure 11.1 shows some of the standard blocks.
11. CALIBRATION
Figure 11.1 shows some of the standard blocks.

Fig.11.1 Standard blocks

11. CALIBRATION
The frequency of calibration is based on practical field experience and is often mandated
through consensus codes and standards. Transducers are usually checked for their general
condition and conformance to specified performance criteria, such as beam angle, depth
resolution and absence of excessive reverberation noise, before beginning tests. The
instrument's general condition is also checked. An ultrasonic test system's conformance to
linearity performance limits is occasionally checked to meet specific amplitude and distance
calibration criteria.
11.1 Standard blocks
Standard Australia AS 2083 describes in detail standard blocks.
11.1.1 Calibration blocks
Calibration blocks for ultrasonic testing come in many shapes and sizes, depending on the
testing application and the form and shape of the test piece. The calibration blocks have the
following common requirements:
 They must be made of fine grained material with low attenuation
 They must contain no significant discontinuities such as cracks or inclusions
 Their dimensions must be accurate to within ±0.1mm
 The surface roughness must not exceed 0.8μm Ra .
11.1.2 Reference blocks
The material of the reference blocks should be the same as the material being inspected and
the artificially induced reflector should closely resemble that of the actual discontinuity
(major limitation of most reference blocks). Reference blocks may include:
 Machined slots to simulate cracks
 Samples of actual cracks
 Drilled holes – side drilled (SDH) and flat bottomed (FBH) to simulate elongated and disc
discontinuities respectively.
11.1.2 Reference blocks
In most cases the artificially induced reflectors in reference blocks are better reflectors of
sound energy, because of their flatter and smoother surfaces, and produce indications larger
than those that a similar sized discontinuity could produce. Reference blocks are identified
by the:
 Material type
 Diameter of flat-bottomed hole (FBH)
 Beam path length.
An identification marking is stamped or engraved so as to be legible and permanent.
For example: AS2083 – 4340 – 2 – 0075
means: 4340 - material type (AISI 4340)
2 - hole diameter (mm) (disc equivalent)
75 - beam path to the reflector (mm)
11.2 Standard Reflectors
Major requirements of a standard reflector are:
 Easy to produce and measure
 Resemble the type of discontinuity sought if possible
 Reproducible.

There are a number of reflectors used to calibrate:

 Backwalls
 Flat bottomed holes
 Side drilled holes, and
 Notches.
11.2.1 Backwalls
The material backwall is commonly used as a
standard reflector when the test object has a
suitable shape to display a backwall. In this
case the true surface and attenuation
characteristics are considered while calibrating.
It can be used for setting the reference echo
when using the DGS technique. However, it
rarely represents a real discontinuity, often
requires an arbitrary extra amount of gain (e.g.
100% backwall +20dB), can rarely be used for
angled beam inspection, and can only calibrate
sensitivity at one beam path – depending on Fig. 11.2 Backwall standard reflector
shape of test object.
11.2.2 Flat bottomed holes (FBH)
Flat bottomed holes are used to simulate the surface of a disc reflector. They are also used in
calibration blocks for sensitivity calibration. However, these blocks are not practical for use
with angle beam transducers, and a complete set of the blocks is very expensive and heavy.
The most complete set of flat bottomed holes are called the Distance Amplitude Blocks and
the Area Amplitude Blocks.

(a) (b)

Fig. 11.3 Flat bottomed hole (FBH) standard reflector;

(a) normal beam transducer, (b)angle beam transducer (a weak diffracted echo)
(a) (b)

Fig. 11.3 Flat bottomed hole (FBH) standard reflector;

(a) normal beam transducer, (b)angle beam transducer (a weak diffracted echo)
11.2.3 Side drilled hole (SDH)
A side drilled hole presents the same
reflecting surface to a beam irrespective of
the beam angle, and can be used for
comparing the sensitivity of different
transducers. The ultrasonic beam strikes the
hole at right angles to the axis of the hole.
Side drilled holes are a very popular standard
reference for weld testing because the hole
simulates an elongated discontinuity of the
type commonly found in welds. They are
drilled in standard calibration Blocks 1 and 2. Fig. 11.4 Side drilled hole standard reflector
However, the reflectivity may be harder to
visualise than flat bottomed holes, and may
be difficult to produce in thin or curved
sections.
11.2.4 Notches
Notches are used in reference blocks to simulate surface breaking cracking. Most notches are slots
cut into a surface at right angles. However, notches are very susceptible to variations in sensitivity
due to the variation of corner reflection efficiency with beam angle. This is not a problem if the
discontinuity sought is a corner of identical type to the reference notch. Corners are very good
reflectors of transverse waves in the range of 35o to 55o; for the other angels it is a poor reflector.
Many discontinuities occur as surface breaking reflectors, which act as corner reflector (Figure
11.5).

Fig.11.5 Regular (normal)

notch standard reflector

But there are some variations using Vee-notches (Figure 11.6).

Fig. 11.6 Vee-notch
standard reflector
Fig.11.5 Regular (normal) notch standard reflector
Fig. 11.6 Vee-notch standard reflector
11.3 Australian Standard Blocks
Table 11.1 gives a summary of what standard blocks are used for.
Standard block used
Block 1 Block 2 Block 3 Block 4 Block 5 Block 6 Block 7
(IIW or (IOW) (1.5 SDH (FBH) (V2) (Resolution) (Step
(V1) or Beam wedge)
Calibration required profile)

Normal beam transducer

Test range P P P*

Dominant frequency P

Resolution A P

Pulse length P A A A P

Reference sensitivity A P
Beam profile A P

Dead zone A P A

Angle beam transducer

Test range P P

Dominant frequency P

Resolution P

Pulse length P P

Reference sensitivity A P

Beam profile P

Dead zone A P A

Index point P A

Beam profile P A

Beam alignment P P

Equipment verification

Horizontal linearity P P

Vertical linearity P P

Overall system gain P

P - preferred, A - alternative, * - thickness test and special materials examination

Most used blocks in practice are specified in Table 11.2.

Block 1 V1 or IIW (International Institute of Welding) Block

Block 2 IOW (Institute of Welding) Block
Block 5 V2 or Miniature Block (Kidney block)
Block 6 Resolution Block
 Standard block used
Block Block Block Block Block 5 Block 6 Block
1 (IIW 2 3 4 (V2) (Resolutio 7
Calibration or (V1) (IOW) (1.5 (FBH) n) (Step
required SDH or wedge
Beam )
profile
)
Normal beam transducer
Test range P P P*
Dominant frequency P
Resolution A P
Pulse length P A A A P
Reference sensitivity A P
Beam profile A P
Dead zone A P A
Angle beam transducer
Test range P P
Dominant frequency P
Resolution P
Pulse length P P
Reference sensitivity A P
Beam profile P
Dead zone A P A
Index point P A
Beam profile P A
Beam alignment P P
Equipment verification
Horizontal linearity P P
Vertical linearity P P
Overall system gain P
P - preferred, A - alternative, * - thickness test and special materials examination
11.3.1 Calibration Block 1
The shape and size of the calibration block1 are shown in Figure 11.7.

Fig. 11.7 Calibration Block 1 (V1 or IIW (International Institute of Welding))

11.3.1 Calibration Block 1
In Figure 11.8 are shown positions of
transducers for different purposes:
Position A: Assessment of overall system
gain
(normal beam transducer)

Position B: Setting of reference sensitivity

(For angle beam transducers with angle <63o,
using hole 1.5 mm)

Position C: Determination of beam angle

(50mm or 1.5mm hole)

Fig.11.8 Calibration Block 1 with

positions of transducer
11.3.1 Calibration Block 1
In Figure 11.8 are shown positions of
transducers for different purposes:
Position D:
Measurement of dominant frequency
Assessment of resolution
(normal beam transducer)
Calibration of test range
(angle beam transducer) (100 mm radius)
Determination of index point
(100 mm radius)
Setting of reference sensitivity
(100 mm radius)

Position E: Calibration of test range

(angle beam transducer) Fig.11.8 Calibration Block 1 with
(91mm distance for longitudinal wave positions of transducer
equivalent to 50mm distance for transverse
wave)
11.3.1 Calibration Block 1
In Figure 11.8 are shown positions of transducers
for
different purposes:
Position F: Calibration of test range
Determination of beam angle
(50mm or 1.5mm hole)
Setting of reference sensitivity
(angle beam transducer, angle >70o,using hole
1.5mm)

Position G: Position opposite to H (surface

position) as like as H

Position H: Calibration of test range (range

below 200mm) Fig.11.8 Calibration Block 1 with
Assessment of horizontal linearity positions of transducer
Assessment of vertical linearity
11.3.1 Calibration Block 1
The test range is calibrated by adjusting the time base and delay controls so that multiple
back echoes from a section of known thickness are displayed at appropriate screen height
(say 80%).

The normal beam transducers is placed at position H for the ranges below 200mm and at
position F for ranges of 200mm and above. When calibrating for longer ranges using position
F, there will be secondary waves displayed due to mode conversion from the faces of the
block. These secondary waves will occur at intervals approximately 76% of the thickness
(19mm) following the backwall.
11.3.1 Calibrating Range & Zero-Normal Beam Transducer
11.3.1 Calibration Block 1
The angle beam transducer is placed at position D for ranges 200mm and above.
11.3.1 Calibrating an angle beam transducer
11.3.1 Calibration Block 1
For the determination of Index point the transducer is placed at position D, over the zero
slot directing the sound beam towards 100mm radius section, as shown in Figure 11.8, and
moved forward-backward until the amplitude of the echo from the relevant radius surface
has reached its maximum value. The Index point then coincides with the zero slot.
11.3.1 Calibration of Index point
11.3.1 Calibration Block 1
To determine the Beam angle place the transducer at position F for angle beam transducers
with angle between 40o and 60o or position C for angles over 60o, as shown in Figure 11.8.
Set the Index point at approximately the transducer angle directing the beam towards the
50mm diameter hole. The beam angle is obtained by direct reading of a scale engraved on
the calibration block or by interpolation.
11.3.1 Measurement of beam angle
11.3.1 Calibration Block 1
Horizontal linearity is the ability of the sweep generator to move the electron beam across
the screen at constant velocity. If the time base moves erratically across the screen, the
trace is not linear and it is not possible to calculate accurately for distance (accurate
measurement of thickness). The procedure for assessment of horizontal linearity for normal
beam transducers is as follows:
a)For ranges up to 100mm the transducer is placed on the block and the time base adjusted
so as several multiple echoes are produced within the chosen range. Four to five echoes are
preferred.
b)For ranges from 100mm to 500mm the same procedure as in step (a) is used except that
the cross-section of the test block used should be large enough to prevent the appearance
of delayed side wall echoes.
c)Setting the time base is established selecting two of the repeated echo signal that are
coincide with appropriate scale divisions (in a 5-echo display choose the 1st and the 4th
echoes, and in a 4-echo display choose the 1st and 3rd echoes). The remaining echoes
should then coincide with their assigned positions.
11.3.1 Calibration Block 1
Horizontal linearity is the ability of the sweep generator to move the electron beam across
the screen at constant velocity. If the time base moves erratically across the screen, the
trace is not linear and it is not possible to calculate accurately for distance (accurate
measurement of thickness). The procedure for assessment of horizontal linearity for normal
beam transducers is as follows:
d) Setting the gain is next step that is applied to successive echoes to be brought to the same
amplitude (80%) when measuring their position against the screen height.
e) Recording and plotting of results of the actual echo position on the screen as a function of
the theoretical echo position as shown in Figure 11.9.

Fig. 11.9 Assessment of horizontal linearity (non-linear time base)

Fig. 11.9 Assessment of horizontal linearity (non-linear time base)
11.3.1 Calibration Block 1
Vertical linearity is the ability of the amplifier to consistently amplify all signals equally
across the range displayed. If the amplifier is not linear, it will not be possible to accurately
compare the signals received from different reflectors or at different distances. Procedure
for assessment of vertical linearity is as follows:
a) All accessible suppression and/or gain control should be off and selected test range of
250mm while transducer is placed at position H.
b) An nth back echo, which is adjacent to the centre of the screen, is selected and
attenuation adjusted so that its height (hn) is 5mm or 10% of screen height.
c) The next succeeding back echo is measured and its height (h n+1) recorded. The gain is
adjusted so that hn is increased by increments of 5mm or 10% of screen height.
d) The collected information is plotted graphically. Values of height hn, in mm or as a
percentage, is plotted on the vertical axis against values of height-ratio (hn/hn+1) on the
horizontal axis (Figure 11.10).
11.3.1 Calibration Block 1
Vertical linearity is the ability of the amplifier to consistently amplify all signals equally
across the range displayed. If the amplifier is not linear, it will not be possible to accurately
compare the signals received from different reflectors or at different distances. Procedure
for assessment of vertical linearity is as follows:
e) A line a-b is drown parallel to the vertical axis and passing through the intersection of the
curve and the 80% of the screen height.
f) An additional line, parallel to a-b at a position representing the limits, at which the
accuracy is to be assessed determined by multiplying the value of the height-ratio by an
appropriate factor, is drawn. For the accuracy of assessment ±0.5dB, ±1dB and ±2dB factors
are 1.12, 1.26 and 1.58 respectively.
g) Vertical linearity is expressed in terms of the screen height range over which the plotted
points lie between the last drawn lines (i.e. ±0.5 linearity exhibits from 32% to 100%).
11.3.1 Calibration Block 1

Fig.11.10 Assessment of vertical linearity

11.3.1 Calibration Block 1
For a quick site assessment of vertical linearity the following technique is useful:
1) Ensure suppression is off
2) Set an echo from any reflector at a level of 100% screen height
3) Apply a 6dB drop (remove 6dB off gain). The screen height should fall to 50% (between
45% and 55%);
4) Apply an additional 14dB drop (total 20dB). The screen height should fall to 10% (between
9% and 11%).
To measure the dominant frequency an unrectified trace (could be rectified if an unrectified
trace is not available) with 1µs of travel time is compared. The dominant frequency confirms
whether a correct frequency is used or not and the Near field and Far field are at the
distance we assumed. The transducer is placed at position D and two echoes separated by
6mm (the slot and adjacent flat section) are measured (Figure 11.11). The spacing between
the two echoes correspond to time of 2µs, therefore, half that distance, between marker 4
and 6, is 1µs. The number of wavelengths occurring in 1µs is the frequency in MHz.
11.3.1 Calibration Block 1

Figure 11.11 Calibration for

frequency measurement
11.3.1 Calibration Block 1
In the examples shown in Figure 11.12 there are 2.5 wavelength in 1µs, so the frequency is
2.5MHz.

Fig.11.12 Measuring dominant frequency with rectified trace

11.3.1 Calibration Block 1
The reference sensitivity may be set by either of using the 100mm radius (place the angle
beam transducer at the position D) or using the 1.5mm diameter hole (place the transducer
at the position B for transducers with the beam angle less than 63 o, and at position F for
transducers of beam angles 70o or greater). Adjust the attenuator to provide a reference
echo of chosen amplitude. The reading of the attenuation is used as a reference sensitivity.
11.3.2 Calibration Block 2
The shape and size of the calibration Block2 are shown in Figure 11.13. Surface A and B are
identified by engraving appropriate identification letters on of the major faces adjacent to
the surfaces. The sides of block are engraved to permit beam angle measurement relative to
the 1.5mm diameter hole 25mm below surface A. Block 2 is used for dominant frequency
and overall system gain for normal beam transducers, and for angle beam transducers for
measurement of beam angle and assessment of beam profile.

Fig.11.13 Calibration Block 2 (IOW (Institute of Welding))

Fig.11.13 Calibration Block 2 (IOW (Institute of Welding))
11.3.2 Calibration Block 2
In order to assess the profile of discontinuities
using surface plotting methods, it is necessary to
determine the effective profile of the beam. This
can be achieved by investigating the changing
amplitude of reflection from side drilled holes at
varying distances along, and transverse to, the
beam axis. Procedure for assessment of beam
profile (shown in Figure 11.14) consists of:
 Positioning the transducer on surface A or B and
maximising the echo from a selected hole
 Marking on the block the position of the index Fig.11. 14 Assessment of beam profile,
point corresponding to the maximum echo height vertical plane
(Fig. a).
11.3.2 Calibration Block 2
Procedure for assessment of beam profile
(shown in Figure 11.14) consists of:
 Adjusting the echo at this position to a full
screen height
 Decreasing the gain on the calibrated control by
20dB and noting the new height of the echo
 Returning gain to the original setting
 Moving the transducer forward until the echo
disappears, and reversing the transducer
movement to return the echo to the height
obtained in step of 20dB drop. The new position Fig.11. 14 Assessment of beam profile,
of the index point is the position 2 (Fig.b). vertical plane
11.3.2 Calibration Block 2
Procedure for assessment of beam profile (shown
in Figure 11.14) consists of:
 Repeating the procedure moving the transducer
backward and getting the position 3 (Fig.c);
 Drawing the transducer axis (the angle beam
having been already determined);
 Plotting the distances X and Y and the beam path
length (depth of the hole) and constructing the
beam profile (Fig.d).

Fig.11. 14 Assessment of beam profile,

vertical plane
11.3.2 Calibration Block 2
Using this block, Distance Amplitude Correction
(DAC) curves can be constructed. The following
procedure is used to construct a DAC curve:
1) Set the response from the closest hole (13mm
from surface A) at 100%
2) Without changing the gain, record the screen
height of echoes received from the holes at
larger beam path (19mm, 25mm, 32mm).
Measure the screen height and plot a graph with
screen height (%) on the vertical axis and the Fig.11.15 DAC curve
beam path (mm) on the horizontal axis (Figure
11.15).
11.3.3 Calibration Block 5
The shape and size of the calibration Block 5 are shown in Figure 11.16.

Fig.11.16 Calibration Block 5 (V2 or Miniature Block or Kidney block)

11.3.3 Calibration Block 5
For the calibrating the test range for normal beam transducer the transducer is positioned
on the block to obtain a series of back echoes across its minor dimension. The range is
calibrated by making these echoes coincident with the appropriate screen height.
Calibration of the test range for angle beam transducers depends on the range required.
When the transducer is positioned as shown in Figure 11.17 (a), the initial echo is obtained
from the 25mm radius surface and multiple echoes occur every 75mm thereafter, i.e. echoes
appear at 25mm, 100mm, 175mm, 250mm. When the transducer is positioned as shown in
Figure 11.17 (b) the initial echo is obtained from the 50mm radius and multiple echoes occur
every 75mm thereafter; i.e. echoes appear at 50mm, 125mm, 200mm.

Fig. 11.17 Calibration for test range

using calibration Block 5
 a)

b)

Fig. 11.17 Calibration for test range using calibration Block 5

11.3.3 Setting a range and zero for an angle beam transducer with the V2 Block
11.3.3 Calibration Block 5
For the determination of Index point the transducer is positioned as shown in Figure 11.17 (
(a) or (b)) and moved forward-backward until the amplitude of the echo from the relevant
radius surface has reached its maximum value. The index point then coincides with the
centre mark of the scale engraved on the side of the block.
To determine the Beam angle position the transducer at A, B or C position as shown in Figure
11.18, depending on whether the angle beam transducer is 45o, 60o or 70o transducer, and
move it until the echo from the hole has reached its maximum value. The beam angle is
obtained by direct reading of a scale engraved on the calibration block or by interpolation.

Fig. 11.18 Position of the transducer

for the approximate determination
of beam angle using calibration
Block 5
Fig. 11.18 Position of the transducer for the approximate determination of beam angle
using calibration Block 5
11.3.3 Calibration Block 5
For the setting of reference sensitivity the echo from 1.5mm or 5mm hole or the echoes
from 25mm and 50mm radii surfaces can be used as reference echoes and the reference
sensitivity set maximising the echo and adjusting the attenuator to provide the reference
echo of chosen amplitude. The resulting attenuator reading is used as a reference sensitivity
with which a working sensitivity can be correlated.
When calibrating miniature transducers or when using test ranges less than 125mm, a
thinner block, e.g.12.5mm or 20mm thick, may be used (Figure 11.19.)

Fig.11.19. Calibration Block 5, 12.5mm and 20mm thick

11.3.4 Calibration Block 6
The shape and size of the calibration block 6 are shown in Figure 11.20.

Fig.11.20 Calibration Block 6 (Resolution Block)

11.3.4 Calibration Block 6
Procedure for assessment of the resolution of the equipment/transducer combination is as
follows:
a) The transducer is placed on the centreline of the resolution block over the change of
radius from one step to the next.
b) The position is adjusted so that the echoes from the two radii are of the same height and
approximately half screen height. It is said to be resolved when their echoes are clearly
separated at half maximum echo height or below it (Figure 11.21).

(a) (b)
Fig. 11.21 Assessment of resolution; (a) echoes resolved, (b) echoes not resolved
11.3.4 The Assessment of Resolution
11.3.5 Reference Blocks
The shape and size of a reference block with a flat bottom hole is shown in Figure 11.22.
These blocks are used for area-amplitude response curves, distance-amplitude response
curves, and evaluating metal products. If used for evaluating metal products, it is preferable
that the blocks are manufactured from a material similar to that under test and be in the
same heat treated condition.

Fig. 11.22 Reference blocks (Flat Bottomed Holes -FBH)

Fig. 11.22 Reference blocks (Flat Bottomed Holes -FBH)
11.3.5 Reference Blocks
A set of Area-Amplitude Blocks consists of a series of blocks with similar external dimensions
containing flat-bottomed holes of different diameters at the same beam path length. Area-
amplitude curves can also be used to determine the vertical linearity.
A set of Distance-Amplitude Blocks consists of a series of blocks with similar cross-section
containing flat-bottomed holes with the same size but at different beam path length. These
blocks can be used to prepare distance amplitude response curves.
11.4 Frequency of calibration
During the use of ultrasonic testing equipment it is obvious that some of the calibrations
described need to be undertaken each time the equipment is used, others at longer
intervals. Standards Australia AS 2083 recommends the following:
For the equipment in constant use, before use or daily, following items should be checked:
 Index point
 Transducers beam angle
 Beam alignment
 Overall system gain.
11.4 Frequency of calibration
During the use of ultrasonic testing equipment it is obvious that some of the calibrations
described need to be undertaken each time the equipment is used, others at longer
intervals. Standards Australia AS 2083 recommends the following:
For the equipment in constant use, before use or monthly, following items should be
checked:
 Beam profile
 Resolution/Pulse length
 Dead zone.
For the equipment in constant use, before use or yearly, check:
 Dominant frequency
 Horizontal linearity
 Vertical linearity.
11.5 Some points on tickling
Tickling is a process commonly used to assist in interpretation. By tickling longitudinal wave
is resolved from transverse waves. Longitudinal waves striking a surface at square incidence
will show a drop of about 10% due to transmission of longitudinal waves into the couplant.
Since the liquid will not support the transverse waves there will not be any effect.
11.5 Longitudinal (Compression) Mode Conversion
11.5 Transverse (Shear) Mode Conversion
11.6 Last Significant Echo technique (LSE)
The last significant echo (LSE) technique, also referred as the:
 Maximum amplitude technique
 Echo-dynamic technique
 Tip diffraction technique.
This technique is applied in ultrasonic measurement and evaluation of discontinuities in
which the moving (dynamic) characteristics of the displayed echo are used. To apply
effectively LSE technique following conditions must be satisfied:
a)High resolution (better than 1mm); thus high frequency and short pulse length are
preferred;
b)The discontinuity dimension to be no less than half the beam width; narrow beams are
preferred;
c)The discontinuity should be struck at an angle greater than 20o; square reflector produces
maximum reflection;
d)Measurement and interpretation is easier if surface of the discontinuity is rough. Ragged
cracks can be easier understood than smooth lack of fusion.
11.6 Last Significant Echo technique (LSE)
Figure 11.23 represents LSE for a large crack struck at 45o.

Fig. 11.23 Large crack struck at 45o

11.6 Last Significant Echo technique (LSE)
Figure 11.24 represents LSE for a top crack tip struck at 45o.

Fig. 11.24 Striking the top crack tip at 45o

11.6 Last Significant Echo technique (LSE)
Figure 11.25 represents LSE for a bottom crack tip struck at 45o.

Fig.11.25 Striking the bottom

crack tip at 45o
11.6 Last Significant Echo technique (LSE)
If the LSE technique is applied to the slot 15mm of the Block 1 (Figure 11.26) the reflection
of the centreline of 45o angle beam transducer from the corner of the 15mm slot will be
received at 141mm beam path distance. Moving the transducers to strike the slot tip the
reflection of 120mm beam path should be received. The LSE technique is limited by pulse
characteristics. Generally, it will measure only planar reflectors and if they are more than
half the beam width high.

Fig. 11.26 Application of LSE technique to a slot reflector

11.7 Plate roll
When examining parallel-sided test pieces such as a plate, the surface opposite the scanning
surface will act as an infinitely large discontinuity. If the surface is relatively smooth it is
unlikely to get any significant reflections from it. If the plate (i.e. steel plate) is in the "as
rolled" condition with a surface roughness around Ra = 3.2µm, the surface roughness will
produce a reflector named plate roll ( "rolling echo" or "half skip hash") when using a 45o
angle beam transducer (Figure 11.27).

Fig. 11.27 Rolling echo from an opposite surface when using 45o angle beam transducer
11.7 Plate roll
All the individual echoes are caused by small irregularities in the plate surface, and each will
come to a maximum when the centre of the beam strikes them. Any surface breaking corner
reflectors will emerge out of the rolling echo and will be immediately recognisable.