15EC333E - Communication

Network Protocols
 Brief History of Internet
• A network is a group of connected, communicating
devices such as computers and printers.

• An internet (note the lowercase i) is two or more

networks that can communicate with each other.

• The most notable internet is called the Internet

(uppercase I), composed of hundreds of thousands of
interconnected networks.

• Internet came into being in 1969.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan.

 • In mid 1960s,
ARPANET
mainframe computers in research
organizations were stand-alone devices.

• Computers from different manufacturers were unable to

communicate with one another.

• The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the

Department of Defense (DOD) was interested in finding a
way to connect computers together.

• This is done so that the researchers they funded could

share their findings, thereby reducing costs and
eliminating duplication of effort.

• In 1967, ARPA presented ideas about ARPANET to

connect different computers.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan.
 ARPANET
• In ARPANET, each host computer (not necessarily from
the same manufacturer) would be attached to a
specialized computer, called an interface message
processor (IMP).

• The IMPs, in turn, would be connected to each other.

• Each IMPs had to communicate with other IMPs as well as

its own attached host.

• By 1969, ARPANET was a reality. Four nodes, at the

UCLA, the UCSB, Stanford Research Institute, and the
University of Utah, were connected via the IMPs to form a
network.

• Software called Network Control Protocol (NCP)

provided communication between the hosts.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan.
 Birth of the Internet
• In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn collaborated on what
they called the Internetting Project.

• They wanted to link different networks together so that a

host on one network could communicate with a host on a
second, different network.

• There were many problems to overcome: diverse packet

sizes, diverse interfaces, and diverse transmission rates.

• Cerf and Kahn devised the idea of a device called a

gateway to serve as the intermediary hardware to transfer
data from one network to another.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan.

 TCP/IP replaces ARPANET’s NCP
• Cerf and Kahn’s landmark 1973 paper outlined the protocols to
achieve end-to-end delivery of data.

• This was a new version of NCP, called Transmission Control

Protocol.

• In TCP, responsibility for error correction was moved from the

IMP to the host machine.

• Decision was made to split TCP into two protocols: TCP and
Internet Protocol (IP).

• IP would handle datagram routing, TCP would be responsible

for higher level functions such as segmentation, reassembly,
and error detection. The combination is called TCP/IP.

• In 1983, authorities abolished the original ARPANET protocols,

and TCP/IP became the official protocol
TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan.
 MILNET and CSNET
MILNET
• In 1983, ARPANET split into two networks:
– MILNET for military users.
– ARPANET for nonmilitary users.

CSNET
• The network was conceived by universities that were
ineligible to join ARPANET due to an absence of defense
ties to DARPA.
• CSNET was a less expensive network; there were no
redundant links and the transmission rate was slower.
• By the middle 1980s, most U.S. universities with computer
science departments were part of CSNET.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan.

 NSFNET and ANSNET
NSFNET
• With the success of CSNET, the National Science
Foundation, in 1986, sponsored NSFNET.
• NSFNET is a backbone that connected five
supercomputer centers located throughout the United
States.

ANSNET
• In 1991, the U.S. government decided that NSFNET was
not capable of supporting the rapidly increasing Internet
traffic.
• Three companies, IBM, Merit, and MCI formed Advanced
Network and Services (ANS) to build a new, high-speed
Internet backbone called ANSNET.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan.

 Time Line

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan.

 What is a Protocol?
• Protocol is synonymous with “rule.”

• In a telephone conversation,
– rule how to make connection (dialing the telephone number)
– how to respond to the call (picking up the receiver)
– finally how to end the communication (hanging up).

• Similarly in a computer network, for communication to

occur, the entities must agree on a protocol.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan.

 What is a Protocol?
Key elements of protocol are:
• Syntax: Syntax refers to the structure or format of the
data, meaning the order in which they are presented.
• For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits
of data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits
to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the
stream to be the message itself.

• Semantics: Semantics refers to the meaning of each

section of bits. It defines how a particular pattern to be
interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation.

• Timing: Timing refers to two characteristics: when data

should be sent and how fast it can be sent.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan.

 What is a Standard?
• Protocol is synonymous with “rule.”

• Standards are agreed-upon rules.

• Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers,

vendors, government agencies, and other service
providers to ensure the interconnectivity.

• Data communication standards fall into two

categories:
– de facto (meaning “by fact” or “by convention”)
– de jure (meaning “by law” or “by regulation”)

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan.

 Motivation for internetworking
• Internet communication has become a
fundamental part of life.

• Social networking sites, blogs etc.,

• VoIP telephone calls.

• e-Commerce sites for purchase of goods.

• Personal banking.
 Motivation for internetworking
• Internet appears to operate as a unified network.

• But it is not engineered from a single networking

technology.

• Some groups need high-speed wired networks to

connect computers in a single building.

• Low-cost wireless network for a private home.

• Low cost hardware cannot span large distance,

alternative needed.
 Motivation for internetworking
• In the 1970s, a technology was created to
make possible the interconnection of many
disparate individual networks and operate
them as a coordinated unit.

• The tech. is known as internetworking. It

forms the basis for Internet by
– accommodating multiple diverse underlying
hardware technologies.
– providing a way to interconnect the networks.
– defining a set of communication conventions that
the networks use to interoperate.
 Motivation for internetworking
• The internet technology hides the details of
network hardware.
• It permits computers to communicate
independent of their physical network
connections.
• Internet technology is an example of open
system interconnection (OSI).
• It is called open because the specifications
are publicly available (unlike proprietary
communication systems from a specific
vendor).
 The TCP/IP Internet
• In the 1970s and 1980s, U.S. government agencies
realized the importance and potential of internet
technology, and funded research that made possible a
global Internet.
• Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
invented TCP/IP protocol suite.
• TCP/IP specifies:
– a set of network standards about how computers
communicate.
– conventions for interconnecting networks and
forwarding traffic.
• TCP/IP can be used to:
– interconnect a set of networks within a single building,
within a physical campus, or among a set of
campuses.
 Internet Services
• Different Internet services are based on different
standards called protocols.

• Protocols of TCP/IP specifies:

– syntactic and semantic rules for communication.
– the details of message formats.
– how a computer responds when a message arrives.
– how a computer handles errors or other abnormal
conditions.
• Protocols based on:
– Application-level services
– Network-level Internet services
Application-Level Internet Services
• Internet application programs are highly interoperable (you
can access email from mobile or from laptop).

• World Wide Web:

– Signifies a web page.
• Cloud Access And Remote Desktop:
– places computation and storage in cloud data centers.
– Lets users access the facilities using Internet.
– remote desktop service, allows a user to access a
computer in a remote data center as if the computer is
local.
– You only need to carry a tab for display, remote desktop
can be powerful.
Application-Level Internet Services
• File transfer:

• File transfer protocol allows

users to send or receive a
copy of a data file.

• Many file downloads,

including movie downloads,
invoke a file transfer
mechanism.
Application-Level Internet Services
• Electronic Mail (email) :

– Electronic mail, replaced by

web application.

• Voice And Video Services:

– Skype, Duo, etc.,
 Network-Level Internet Services
• Connectionless Packet Delivery Service:
– internet forwards small messages from one computer to
another based on address information carried in the
message.

– As it forwards each packet independently, internet does not

guarantee reliable, in order delivery of message.

• Reliable Stream Transport Service:

– Ensures recovery from transmission errors, lost packets, or
failures of intermediate switches along the path between
sender and receiver.
– Application on one computer to establish a “connection” to
an application on another computer.
 TCP/IP services
Many networks provide basic services similar to those
outlined in the previous slide.
The primary distinguishing features of TCP/IP are:
1. Network Technology Independence:
– Although it is based on conventional packet switching technology,
TCP/IP is independent of any particular brand or type of
hardware.
2. Universal Interconnection:
– The Internet allows any arbitrary pair of computers to
communicate. Each computer is assigned an address that is
universally recognized throughout the Internet.
– Intermediate devices use the destination address to make
forwarding decisions.
– A sender only needs to know the address of a recipient and the
Internet takes care of forwarding datagrams.
 TCP/IP services
3. End-to-End Acknowledgements :
– The TCP/IP Internet protocols provide acknowledgements
between the original source and ultimate destination instead of
between successive machines along the path, even if the source
and destination do not connect to a common physical network.

4. Application Protocol Standards:

– In addition to the basic transport-level services (like reliable
stream connections), the TCP/IP protocols include standards for
many common applications, including protocols that specify how
to access a web page, transfer a file, and send email.
 Approaches of Network Communication
• Network Classification:

• From a hardware perspective:

– Networks are classified by the forms of energy they use and the
media over which the energy travels.
– electrical signals over copper wire.
– light pulses over optical fiber.
– radio frequency waves transmitted through space.

• From a communication perspective:

– Connection oriented (sometimes called circuit-switched)
– Connectionless (sometimes called packet-switched)
 Approaches of Network Communication
• Connection Oriented Network:

• Connection-oriented networks operate by forming a

dedicated connection or circuit between two points.

• Eg., old landline telephones lines.

– Phone -> local switching office -> trunk lines -> remote
switching office -> dest. phone.
– Once connection established, no other network activity
interrupts the call.

• Disadvantage: circuit costs are fixed, independent of

use. Even if you don’t talk in phone (silent), you are
charged.
 Approaches of Network Communication
• Connection Oriented Network:

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan, p.99

 Approaches of Network Communication
• Connectionless Network:

• Often used to connect computers.

• Data to be transferred across a network is divided into
small pieces called packets.
• Packets are multiplexed onto high capacity inter machine
connections.
• A large file to be transmitted broken into many packets
that are sent across the network one at a time.
• Network hardware delivers the packets to the specified
destination.
• Software at the destination reassembles them into a
single file.
 Approaches of Network Communication
• Connectionless Network:

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan, p.97

 Approaches of Network Communication
• Packet switched technologies divided into two
categories:
– Wide Area Networks (WANs)
– Local Area Networks (LANs)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Also called long haul networks.

• Communication over long distances.

• WAN can use optical fiber and span a continent or an ocean.

• WAN operates at slower speed than LAN. WAN has large

delay.

• Typical speeds for a WAN range from 100 Mbps to 10 Gbps.

• Delays across a WAN can vary from a few milliseconds to

several tenths of a second.
 Local Area Network (LAN)
• LAN provide the highest speed connections among
computers.

• Sacrifice the ability to span long distances.

• A single building or a small campus.

• Typically operates between 1 Gbps and 10 Gbps.

• Delay is very less as LAN cover small area.

• A few tenths of a millisecond or as long as 10

milliseconds
 Ethernet Technology
• Ethemet is the name given to a popular packet-switched LAN
technology invented at Xerox PARC in the early 1970s.
Xerox Corporation, Intel Corporation, and Digital Equipment
Corporation standardized Ethernet in 1978;
• IEEE released a compatible version of the standard using the
standard number 802.3. Ethernet has become the most
popular LAN technology Because Ethernet is so popular,
many variants exist.
• Although the original wiring scheme has been superceded,
understanding the original design helps clarify the intent and
some of the design decisions.
Called the ether, the cable itself is completely passive; all the active electronic
components needed to make the network function are associated with the computers
attached to the network. Each Ethemet cable is about 1/2 inch in diameter and up to
500 meter. A resistor is added between the center wire and shield at each end to
prevent reflection of electrical signals
• The connection between a computer and the original Ethernet
coaxial cable requires a hardware device called a transceiver (or
otherwise called Vampire Taps). Physically, the connection between
a transceiver and the inner wire of an Ethernet cable enters through
a small hole in the outer layers of the cable as Figure 2.2 illustrates
• Each connection to an original Ethernet
uses two major electronic components.
• A transceiver connects to the center wire
and braided shield on the cable, sensing
and sending signals on the ether.
• A host interface card or host adapter plugs
into the computer's bus (e.g., to a
motherboard) and connects to the
transceiver.
• The transceiver senses when the ether is in use
and translates analog electrical signals on the
ether to (and from) digital form.
• A cable called the Attachment Unit Interface (AUI)
cable connects the transceiver to an adapter
board in a host computer.
• Informally called a transceiver cable, the AUI cable
contains many wires. The wires carry the electrical
power needed to operate the transceiver, the
signals that control the transceiver operation, and
the contents of the packets being sent or received.
• Each host interface controls the operation of one
transceiver according to instructions it receives
from the computer software. To the operating
system software, the interface appears to be
an input/output device that accepts basic data
transfer instructions from the computer,
controls the transceiver to carry them out,
interrupts when the task has been completed,
and reports status information. Although a
transceiver is a simple hardware device, the host
interface can be complex (e.g., some interfaces
contain a microprocessor used to control transfers
between the computer memory and the ether).
2.4.1 Thin-Wire Ethernet
Several components of the original Ethernet technology have undesirable
properties. For example, because a transceiver contains electronic components, it
has a non-trivial cost. Furthermore, because transceivers are located with the cable
and not with computers, locating or replacing them is difficult.

In particular, to provide maximum protection against electrical interference from

devices like electric motors, the cable contains heavy shielding that makes it
difficult to bend. Finally, the AUI cable is also thick and difficult to bend.

To reduce costs for environments like offices that do not contain much electrical
interference, engineers developed an alternative Ethernet wiring scheme. Formally
known as 10Base2 and usually called thin-wire Ethernet or thinnett, the alternative
coaxial cable is thinner, less expensive, and more flexible.

thin-wire Ethernet has some disadvantages. Because it does not provide as much p
from electrical interference, thin-wire Ethernet cannot be placed adjacent to powerful
electrical equipment like that found in a factory
 Thin-Wire Ethernet

Courtesy: Google images

When designing thin-wire Ethernet, engineers replaced costly
transceiver hardware with special high-speed digital circuits,
and provided a direct connection from a computer to the
network. Thus, in a thin-wire scheme, a computer contains
both the host interface and the circuitry that connects to the
cable. Manufacturers of small computers and workstations
find thin-wire Ethernet an especially attractive scheme
because they can integrate Ethernet hardware into single
board computers
Becauseand mount
a thin-wire connectors
Ethernet directly
connects directly onone
from the back
computer to another, the wiring scheme works well when many
of the computer.
computers occupy a single room. The thin-wire cable runs
directly from one computer to the next.
Thin-wire Ethernets were designed to be easy to connect and
disconnect. Thin-wire uses BNC connectors, which do not
require tools to attach a computer to the cable.
Thus, a user can connect a computer to a thin-wire Ethernet
without the aid of a technician. Of course, allowing users to
manipulate the ether has disadvantages: if a user
disconnects the ether, it prevents all machines on the ether
from communicating
Twisted Pair Ethernet
Advances in technology have made it possible to build Ethernets that do not need the
electrical shielding of a coaxial cable.
Called twisted pair Ethernet, the
technology
allows a computer to access an
Ethernet using conventional unshielded
copper wires similar to the wires used
to connect telephones. The advantages
of using twisted pair wiring are that it
further reduces costs and protects other
computers on the network from a user who
disconnects a single computer. In some
cases, a twisted pair technology can
make it possible for an organization to
use Ethernet over existing wiring; in
others, the needed wiring (called
1OBase-T,
category 5the first twisted
cable) pair Ethernet
is cheaper and easier
operated
to install than coaxial cable. thick or
at 10 Mbps,exactly like
thin Ethernet
The hub is an electronic device that simulates the signals on an Ethernet cable.
Physically, a hub consists of a small box that usually resides in a wiring closet; a
connection between a hub and a computer must be less than 100 meters long. A
hub requires power, and can allow authorized personnel to monitor and control its
operation over the network. To the host interface in a computer, a connection to a hub
appears to operate the same way as a connection to a transceiver. That is, an Ethernet
hub provides the same communication capability as a thick or thin Ethernet; hubs merely
offer an alternative wiring scheme.
Ethernet Capacity
In particular, the initial twisted pair Ethernet design operates at the same
rate as the original thick Ethernet, which means that data can be
transmitted at 10 million bits per second.
Although a computer can generate data at Ethernet speed, raw network speed
should not be thought of as the rate at which two computers can exchange data.

High bandwidth makes it possible to carry heavy traffic loads, while low
bandwidth
means the highway cannot carry as much traffic. A 10 Mbps Ethernet,
for example, can handle a few computers that generate heavy loads, or
many computers that generate light loads
Fast
Ethernet
To overcome the throughput limitation of Ethernet, engineers designed a new version of
Ethernet that operates an order of magnitude faster. Known formally as 100Base-T, the
technology is usually called Fast Ethernet. Fast Ethernet allows a station to transmit or
receive data at 100 Mbps.

10/100 Ethernet
The technology, which is known as dual-speed Ethernet or I0/100 Ethernet, is
available for computer interfaces as well as for hubs.
In essence, all 100Base-T hardware interjects extra signals, making it possible for the
hardware at one end of a cable to know which hardware type is connected to the other
end.
In fact, as long as all eight wires connect to the FU-45 connector, the cabling and
connectors used with 10Base-T are compatible with the cable and connectors used
for 100Base-T
For example, consider a computer that has a 10/100 interface card.
If the computer is connected to a 10Base-T hub, the hardware in the card will
automatically
detect the speed and communicate at 10Mbps.
If the same computer is then unplugged from the 10Base-T hub and connected to a
100Base-T
hub, the hardware will automatically detect the new speed and begin transmitting
at 100 Mbps.
Gigabit Ethernet
By the late 1990s, as the market share of 100Base-T Ethemet began to grow, it became
obvious that there was a demand for even higher capacity Ethernet. Consequently,
engineers extended the Ethernet technology to a bit rate of 1 Gbps (gigabits per
second).

Known as I000Base-T, the high throughput rate makes the technology extremely
attractive for use in corporate backbone networks, where traffic from many computers
passes through the network.

The high data rate does have a slight disadvantage it makes gigabit Ethernet more
susceptible to electrical interference. Consequently, wiring that operates well with
10Base-T or even 100Base-T may not work well with 1000Base-T.

Like Fast Ethernet, the design of gigabit Ethernet was optimized for total
throughput. The original packet format and maximum packet size were retained,
making packets used on
10Base-T, 100Base-T and 1000Base-T networks interchangeable.

Consequently, it is possible to collect traffic from ten 100Base-T Ethernets, each running
at full speed, and pass the traffic across a single 1000Base-T network.
Properties of an Ethernet
Ethernet was designed to be a shared bus technology that
supports broadcast, uses best-effort delivery semantics, and
has distributed access control. The topology is called a
shared bus because all stations connect to a single, shared
communication channel; it is called a broadcast technology
because all stations receive every transmission, making it
possible to transmit a packet to all stations at the same time.
A hub passes all packets to each host interface, which chooses
packets the computer should receive and filters out all others.
Ethernet is called a best-effort delivery mechanism because the
hardware provides no information to the sender about whether
the packet was delivered. For example, if the destination machine
happens to be powered down, packets sent to it will be lost, and
the sender will not be notified.
 WiFi (802.11)
• A series of standards for wireless networks that are
closely related to Ethernet.

• IEEE 802.11g, 802.11n, 802.11ax, etc.,

• A wireless device can include hardware for multiple

standards, and can choose the standard that gives the
maximum speed.

• Wi-Fi can be used in two forms:

– a single base station (called an access point) connects to
multiple clients (e.g., users with laptops)
– a point-to-point configuration used to connect exactly two
wireless radios (called WiFi direct, used in SHAREit).
 Network Model and Architecture
• Ethernet is a standard (IEEE 802.3) to connect
computers in wired network.

• Wifi is a standard to connect computers and other

devices in wireless network.

• A system to hide the details of underlying network

hardware (wired or wireless) and provide universal
interconnection is needed.

• Heterogeneous system can be interconnected using:

– Application level interconnection
– Network level interconnection
 Application level Interconnection
• Special application programs, called application gateways
were used to hide the underlying differences and provide the
appearance of uniformity.

• Early incompatibilities arose from email, as each vendor

designed their own email systems.

• Incompatibility arose between vendors in

– Format for storing email.
– Conventions for identifying a recipient.
– A method for transferring an email message from the sender to the
recipient.

• Application gateways were used for connection between

different email systems.
 Application level Interconnection
• Application gateway must understand the details of
– details of the network connections
– the message protocols
– the format of email messages used

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer,

 Application level Interconnection
Advantages of Application gateway:
• Application gateway is a software, no special hardware
is needed.
• The original email systems on the users’ computers
remain unchanged.

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer,

 Application level Interconnection
Disadvantages of Application gateway:
• Application gateway can only handle one specific application
(email for example), it cannot support file transfer, chat ,etc.,
• Differences in functionality between systems prevent
interoperability.
– Email sys1 support file attachment, email sys2 does not, how
application gateway will transfer mails between them?
• Whenever either email system is changed, application
gateway must also be updated.

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer,

 Network level Interconnection
• The alternative to using application-level gateways.

• Transfers packets from their original source to their

ultimate destination without using intermediate
application programs.
 Network level Interconnection
Advantages of Packet switching:

• The scheme maps directly onto the underlying network

hardware, making it extremely efficient.

• Separates data communication activities from application

programs, permitting intermediate computers to handle
network traffic without understanding the applications that are
sending or receiving messages.

• Makes it possible to build general purpose communication

facilities that are not limited to specific uses.

• Allows network managers to add or change network

technologies while application programs remain unchanged.
 Design of Communication Systems
No single network hardware technology can satisfy all
constraints:

• Inexpensive LAN technologies that provide high-speed

communication only cover short distances.
• Wide area networks that span long distances cannot supply
local communication cheaply.
• No single network technology satisfies all needs, we need to
consider multiple hardware technologies.

Users desire universal interconnection:

• An arbitrary user would like to be able to communicate with an

arbitrary endpoint, either another user or a computer system.
 Properties of Internet
• The notion of universal service.

• Encapsulation: we want to hide the underlying internet

architecture from users, and permit communication without
requiring knowledge of the internet’s structure.

• We do not want to require users or application programs to

understand the details of underlying networks or hardware
interconnections to use the internet.

• We do not want to mandate a network interconnection

topology. Adding a new network to the internet should not
mean connecting to a centralized switching point, nor should it
mean adding direct physical connections between the new
network and all existing networks.
 Properties of Internet
• We want to be able to send data across intermediate
networks even though they are not directly connected to
the source or destination computers.

• We want all computers in the internet to share a

universal set of machine identifiers (which can be thought
of as names or addresses).
 Internet Architecture
• How are networks interconnected to form an internetwork?
• Two networks cannot be plugged together directly.
• They can only be connected by a special computer system
that has the hardware needed to connect to each network.
• Computers that interconnect two networks and pass packets
from one to the other are called internet routers or IP
routers.

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer,

 Internet Architecture
• A realistic internet will include multiple networks and routers.

• A router must handle packets for networks to which the router

does not attach.

• Router is like a modest computer

– Routers use the destination network, not the destination computer,
when forwarding a packet. Computers can be many, networks are
only a few.

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 Users’ view
• The internet as a unified communication system in (a)
• The constituent networks and their interconnection with routers in (b)
• The software must hide details and allow application programs to
send and receive packets to arbitrary locations as if the computer
was connected to a single network.

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer,

 All Networks are equal
• The TCP/IP internet protocols treat all networks equally.
• A Local Area Network such as an Ethernet,
• A Wide Area Network used as a backbone,
• A wireless network such as a Wi-Fi hotspot,
• And a point-to-point link between two computers each count as one
network.

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.16

 Protocol Design Issues/Need for multiple
protocols
• Hardware Failure: A computer or router may fail because the
hardware fails or the operating system crash. A network
transmission link may fail or accidentally become
disconnected. Protocol software needs to detect such failures
and recover from them.

• Network Congestion: Even when all hardware and software

operates correctly, networks have finite capacity that can be
exceeded. Protocol software needs to arrange a way to detect
congestion and suppress further traffic to avoid making the
situation worse.

• Packet Delay Or Packet Loss: Sometimes, packets

experience extremely long delays or are lost. Protocol
software needs to learn about failures or adapt to long delays.
 Protocol Design Issues/Need for multiple
protocols
• Data Corruption: Electrical or magnetic interference or
hardware failures can cause transmission errors that
corrupt the contents of transmitted data; interference can
be especially severe on wireless networks. Protocol
software needs to detect and recover from such errors.

• Data Duplication Or Inverted Arrivals: Networks that

offer multiple routes may deliver packets out of
sequence or may deliver duplicates of packets. Protocol
software needs to reorder packets and remove any
duplicates.
 Network Building Blocks
• Transmission Media
– Guided
– Unguided
• Transmission
– Simplex
– Half Duplex
– Full Duplex
• Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
– Frequency division
– Wavelength division
– Time division
• Switching
– Circuit switching
– Packet or datagram switching
 Transmission Media
• A transmission medium can be broadly defined as
anything that can carry information from a source to a
destination.

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.192

 Transmission Media
Twisted Pair:
• One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver.
• The other is used only as a ground reference.
• The receiver uses the difference between the two.
• Two wires if placed parallel, unevenly affected by noise. So
twisting is done.
• Noise evenly affect twisted wires. Since difference between
wires is found, common noise removed.

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.193, 194

 Transmission Media
Coaxial Cable:
• Carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in
twisted pair cable.
– Central core conductor – solid or stranded copper wires
– Insulating sheath
– Outer conductor – metal foil or braid (shield against noise,
second conductor)

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.196

 Transmission Media
Fiber optic Cable:
• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and
transmits signals in the form of light.
• Works based on the principle of total internal reflection.
• Consists of core and cladding.

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.199

 Transmission Media
Wireless:
• Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves
without using a physical conductor.
• Signals are normally broadcast, available to everyone.

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.204

Transmission
 Types of Data Transmission
• Parallel:
– Binary data, consisting of 1s and 0s, may be organized into groups
of n bits each.
– By grouping, we can send data n bits at a time instead of 1.
– Use n wires to send n bits at one time.
• Serial:
– In serial transmission one bit follows another.
– Threes types: Asynchronous, Synchronous and Isochronous.

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.131

 Types of Data Transmission
• Asynchronous:
– The timing of a signal is unimportant.
– Information is received and translated by agreed upon patterns.
– We send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more stop bits (1s) at the
end of each byte. There may be a gap between each byte.
– This mechanism is called asynchronous because, at the byte level, the
sender and receiver do not have to be synchronized.
• Synchronous Transmission:
– The bit stream is combined into longer "frames," which may contain multiple
bytes.
– Each byte is sent without gaps.
– Data are transmitted as an unbroken string of 1s and 0s, and the receiver
separates that string into the bytes, or characters.
• Isochronous:
– In real-time audio and video, in which uneven delays between frames are
not acceptable.
– Frame level synchronization for entire broadcast is achieved here.

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.135

 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• For the wise use of bandwidths.
• Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two
devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared.
• Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a
single data link.

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.162

 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• In FDM, different set of frequencies form different
channels.

• In WDM, different set of optical waves form different

channels.

• In TDM, different time slots form different channels.

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.162

 FDM: Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• FDM is an analog technique applied when the
bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the
combined bandwidths of the signals to be
transmitted.
• Signals generated by each sending device modulate
different carrier frequencies.
• Carrier freq. are sufficiently separated, guard band
included.

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.163

 FDM: Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• Frequency Division Duplexing

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.163

Example 6.1

Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4

kHz. We need to combine three voice channels into a link
with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the
configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there
are no guard bands.
Solution
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a
different bandwidth, as shown in Figure 6.6. We use the 20-
to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the 24- to 28-
kHz bandwidth for the second channel, and the 28- to 32-
kHz bandwidth for the third one. Then we combine them as
shown in Figure 6.6.
6.80
 Figure 6.6 Example 6.1

6.81
Data Communication and Networking, 4ed
 WDM: Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine
optical signals.
• To combine multiple light sources into one single light at
the multiplexer, which is a prism.

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.168

 TDM: Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several
low-rate channels into one high-rate one.
• Allows several connections to share the high bandwidth of a
link.
• Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.
• TDM is different from switching, as packets arrive in order.

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.169

 Time Division Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

Time Division
Multiplexing

Synchronous Statistical

• In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment

in the output even if it is not sending data.
• This can be inefficient if some input lines have no data to
send.
• When an input line has a slot's worth of data to send is it
given a slot in the output frame in Statistical TDM.

Data Communication and Networking, 4ed

 Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

• A frame is divided into n time slots and one slot is

allocated for each unit, one for each input line.

• In synchronous TDM, the data rate

of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration is n
times shorter.

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.170

 Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

• In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an

allotment in the output even if it is not sending data.

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed

 Statistical Time Division Multiplexing

• Synchronous TDM can be inefficient if some input lines have no

data to send.
• In statistical multiplexing, the number of slots in each output frame is
less than the number of input lines.
• The multiplexer checks each input line in round-robin fashion;
– It allocates a slot for an input line if the line has data to send;
– Otherwise it skips the line and checks the next line.

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.180

 Statistical Time Division Multiplexing

• An output slot in synchronous TDM is totally occupied by

data. No need for addressing.
• In statistical TDM, a slot needs to carry data as well as
the address of the destination. (addressing needed)

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.180

 Switching
• A network is a set of connected devices.
• When we have multiple devices, how to connect them to
make one-to-one communication possible.
• Mesh and star topology uses huge recourses, wasteful.
• A better solution is switching.
• A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes,
called switches.
• Switches are devices capable of creating temporary
connections between two or more devices linked to the
switch.

Data Communication and Networking, 4ed

 Switching

Fig.: Data Communication and Networking, 4ed, p.213

 Circuit Switched Network
• A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches
connected by physical links.
• Each link is divided into sub channels using TDM or FDM.
• Before starting communication, the stations must make a
reservation for the resources.
• Data transferred between the two stations are not packetized.
• Three Phases of circuit making:
– Setup phase
– Data Transfer phase
– Teardown phase

Data Communication and Networking, 4ed

 Circuit Switched Network
• Communication is through 4-kHz voice channels. We assume
that each link uses FDM to connect a maximum of two voice
channels. The bandwidth of each link is then 8 kHz.

• Telephone 1 is connected to telephone 7; 2 to 5; 3 to 8; and 4

to 6.

Data Communication and Networking, 4ed

 Circuit Switching Properties
• Inefficiency
– Channel capacity is dedicated for the whole duration of a
connection
– If no data, capacity is wasted
• Delay
– Long initial delay: circuit establishment takes time
– Low data delay: after the circuit establishment, information is
transmitted at a fixed data rate with no delay other than the
propagation delay. The delay at each node is negligible.
• Developed for voice traffic (public telephone network) but
can also applied to data traffic.
– For voice connections, the resulting circuit will enjoy a high
percentage of utilization because most of the time one party or
the other is talking.
– But how about data connections?

93
 Packet Switched Network
• In a packet-switched network, there is no resource
reservation; resources are allocated on demand.

• Longer messages are split into series of packets.

• Each packet contains a portion of user data plus some

control info.
 Packet Switched Network
• In this example, all four packets (or datagrams) belong to
the same message, but may travel different paths to reach
their destination.
• This is so because the links may be involved in carrying
packets from other sources.
• Packets arrive at their destination out of order with different
delays.
• Packets may also be lost or dropped because of a lack of
resources.

Data Communication and Networking, 4ed

 Packet Switched Network
• The datagram networks are sometimes Routing Table in
referred to as connectionless networks. Datagram network

• Packets are forwarded based on destination

address.

• Every packet in a datagram network carries a

header that contains, among other
information, the destination address of the
packet.

• The destination address in the header of a

packet in a datagram network remains the
same during the entire journey of the packet.

Data Communication and Networking, 4ed

 Virtual Circuit Network
• A virtual circuit network is a datagram network (based on packet
forwarding), but works like a circuit switched network.

• Addresses:
– Global Address: source and destination have unique global address.
– Virtual Circuit Identifier (VCI): a small number which has only switch
scope.
• VCI is used by frames between two switches.

Data Communication and Networking, 4ed

 Virtual Circuit Network
• VCI is used by frames between two switches.

• When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI.

• When it leaves, it has a different VCl.

Data Communication and Networking, 4ed

 Virtual Circuit Network
• Three Phases of virtual circuit network:
– Setup
– Data Transfer
– Teardown
• Data Transfer in a VCN is shown in below diagram.

Data Communication and Networking, 4ed

 Delay in Datagram and Virtual Circuit Networks
• Datagram Network:
– Each packet may experience a wait at a switch before it is forwarded.
– Since not all packets in a message necessarily travel through the same
switches, the delay is not uniform for the packets of a message.

Data Communication and Networking, 4ed

 Delay in Datagram and Virtual Circuit Networks
• Virtual Circuit Network:
– There is a one-time delay for setup and a one-time delay for
teardown.
– If resources are allocated during the setup phase, there is no wait
time for individual packets.

Data Communication and Networking, 4ed

 Protocol Layering

Layered
Tasks:

• Sender
• Carrier
• Receiver

Data Communication and Networking, 4ed

 Protocol Layering
Hierarchy:

• There are three different activities at the sender site and another
three activities at the receiver site.
• The task of transporting the letter between the sender and the
receiver is done by the carrier.
• The tasks must be done in the order given in the hierarchy.

Services:
• Each layer at the sending site uses the services of the layer
immediately below it

Data Communication and Networking, 4ed

 Protocol Layering
Layered Models:

1. Open System Interconnection:

– 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) was
established.
– In late 1970s, ISO proposed a standard called Open System
Interconnection (OSI).
– OSI covers all aspects of network communications.
– OSI is a seven layer model.

2. TCP/IP protocol suite:

– Developed prior to the OSI model.
– The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software
layers built upon the hardware.
– Today, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer model with the layers
named similarly to the ones in the OSI model.

Data Communication and Networking, 4ed

 Open System Interconnection (OSI)
• An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two
different systems to communicate regardless of their
underlying architecture.
• The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without
requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware
and software.

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite, p.21

 Open System Interconnection (OSI)
• The message is moved down from layer 7 to layer 1 at sender.
• The message is moved up from layer 1 to layer 7 at receiver.
• Message passing between layers made possible with interface.

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite, p.22

 Open System Interconnection (OSI)
• The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three
subgroups.
• L1, L2, L3 - the network support layers (combination of h/w and
s/w, L1 purely h/w)
– deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to
another.
– Electrical specifications, physical connections, physical addressing,
and transport timing and reliability.

• L5, L6, L7 - the user support layers (implemented in s/w)

– allow interoperability among unrelated software systems

• Layer 4
– links the two subgroups and ensures that what the lower layers have
transmitted is in a form that the upper layers can use.

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite

 Open System Interconnection (OSI)
• Data originates at application layer (D7).
• Each layer adds a header to data from above layers.
• DLL adds trailer.
• When data passes to physical layer, it is changed to electrical
or electromagnetic signal.

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite, p.23

 Open System Interconnection (OSI)
Encapsulation
• A packet at level 7 is encapsulated in the packet at level 6.
• The whole packet at level 6 is encapsulated in a packet at level
5 and so on.
• The data part of a packet at level N is carrying the whole packet
(data and overhead) from level N+1.
• The concept is called encapsulation.

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite, p.23

 Layers in OSI: Physical Layer
• The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a
bit stream over a physical medium.
• It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of
the interface and transmission media.
• It also defines the procedures and functions that physical
devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission to
occur.

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite, p.24

 Layers in OSI: Physical Layer
PHY is also concerned with:
1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and media:
– defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices
and the transmission media.
2. Representation of bits:
– data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of 0s or 1s) with no
interpretation.
– Bits are converted to electrical, electromagnetic or optical signal.
– PHY defines type of encoding (Machester, NRZ, RZ, etc.,).
3. Data rate:
– The number of bits sent each second is defined by PHY.
4. Synchronization of bits:
– sender and receiver must not only use the same bit rate but must
also be synchronized at the bit level. Clock level synchronization.

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite, p.24

 Layers in OSI: Physical Layer
PHY is also concerned with:
5. Line configuration:
– Connection of devices. point-to-point configuration, multipoint
configuration.
6. Physical topology:
– Defines how devices are connected to make a network.
– mesh topology (every device connected to every other device)
– star topology (devices are connected through a central device)
– ring topology (each device is connected to the next, forming a ring)
– bus topology (every device on a common link)
7. Transmission mode:
– simplex mode
– half-duplex mode
– full-duplex mode
• Device operating in Physical layer is called repeater.

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite, p.24

 Layers in OSI: Data Link Layer (DLL)
• PHY is a raw transmission facility.
• The DLL transforms the PHY into a reliable link.
• It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper
layer (network layer).
Responsibilities of the DLL include:
1. Framing:
– divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
2. Physical addressing:
– adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of
the frame.
– If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender’s network,
the receiver address is the address of the connecting device that
connects the network to the next one.
• Device operating in DLL is called switch (L2 device).

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite

 Layers in OSI: Data Link Layer (DLL)
3. Flow control:
– If the rate at which the data is absorbed by the receiver is less
than the rate produced at the sender, the data link layer imposes a
flow control mechanism to prevent overwhelming the receiver.
4. Error control:
– The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It
also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames.
– Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the
end of the frame.
5. Access control:
– When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data
link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has
control over the link at any given time.

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite

 Layers in OSI: Network Layer
1. DLL is responsible for delivery of frames between two
systems on the same network (a link).

2. The network layer is responsible for the source-to-

destination delivery of a packet, possibly across
multiple networks (multiple links).

3. If two systems are connected to the same link, there is

usually no need for a network layer.

4. The network layer is needed only when two systems are

connected in two different networks.

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite

 Layers in OSI: Network Layer
Responsibilities of Network Layer:
1. Logical addressing:
– The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles
the addressing problem locally.
– If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another
addressing system to help distinguish the source and destination
systems.
– The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper
layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of the
sender and receiver.
2. Routing:
– When independent networks or links are connected together to create
internetworks (network of networks) or a large network, the
connecting devices (called routers or switches ) route or switch the
packets to their final destination.
• Device operating in network layer is called router (L3 device).

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite

 Layers in OSI: Network Layer

Physical Address:
Associated with DLL.
Otherwise called MAC
address. (6 byte
address)

IPv4 Address:
Associated with network
layer. Otherwise called
logical address. (4 byte
address)

Observe Ethernet card

and Wifi card each have
their own MAC and IP
address.

Same system can have

In addition to MAC and IPv4 address, port address (2 multiple ports, one may
byte) is also available which is used to identify different be wireless, other may
applications or processes in a computer. be wired. But each has
 Layers in OSI: Transport Layer
1. The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process
delivery of the entire message.

2. A process is an application program running on the host.

3. The network layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of

individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship
between those packets.

4. The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the

whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both
error control and flow control at the source-to-destination
level.
5. Transport layer is responsible for process-to-process
delivery.

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite

 Layers in OSI: Transport Layer
1. Layer 4 provides end-to-end reliability by having the
destination computer communicate with the source
computer.
2. Other responsibilities of Transport Layer:
1. Service-point addressing – port address to identify application.
2. Segmentation and reassembly - A message is divided into
transmittable segments and reassembled.
3. Connection control – connectionless or connection oriented.
4. Flow control – end-to-end flow control, unlike DLL (flow control
in a link).
5. Error control – end-to-end error control.

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer,

p.52
 Layers in OSI: Session Layer
1. The services provided by the first four layers (physical,
data link, network and transport) are not sufficient for
some processes.
2. The session layer is the network dialog controller.
3. It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating systems.
4. Other responsibilities include:
– Dialog control - half-duplex or full-duplex?
– Synchronization - if a system is sending a file of 2,000 pages,
insert checkpoints after every 100 pages. If a crash happens
during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to
be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523.

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite
 Layers in OSI: Presentation Layer
1. The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information exchanged between two
systems.

2. Other responsibilities:
– Translation: Different systems use different encoding for file
storing (UTF-8, Unicode etc.,). Presentation layer is responsible
for interoperation.
– Encryption
– Compression

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite
 Layers in OSI: Application Layer
1. The application layer enables the user, whether human or
software, to access the network.

2. It provides services to users.

3. Browser for example is a network application.

4. Services provided by application layer:

1. Network virtual terminal
2. File transfer, access, and management (FTAM)
3. E-mail services
4. Directory services

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite
 Layers in OSI: Summary

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite, p.28
 TCP/IP 5-Layer Reference Model
• The second major layering model did not arise from a
formal standards body.

• The model arose from researchers who designed the

Internet and the TCP/IP protocol suite.

• The ISO model was defined by committees before

protocols were implemented.

• The Internet 5-layer reference model was formalized after

protocols had been designed and tested.

• Development of TCP/IP model was started before OSI

model.

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer

 TCP/IP 5-Layer Reference Model

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer,

 TCP/IP 5-Layer Reference Model
• Application Layer:
– Users invoke application programs that access services available
across a TCP/IP internet.
– Application program chooses the style of transport needed.
– It can be a sequence of individual messages or a continuous stream
of bytes.

• Transport Layer:
– The primary duty of the transport layer is to provide communication
from one application program to another (end-to-end communication).
– Provides reliable transport (data arrives without error and in
sequence).
– Retransmits lost packets.
– divides the stream of data from application layer into small pieces
(called packets).
– Adds headers to identify which application program sent the data and
which application on the receiving end should receive the data.

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer

 TCP/IP 5-Layer Reference Model
• Internet Layer:
– The internet layer handles communication from one computer to
another.
– Sends packets from transport layer along with an ID of the
destination computer.
– If destination is in same network, direct transmission to
destination.
– If destination not in same network, sends the packet to a router
which will forward it to destination.

• Network Interface Layer:

– Responsible for accepting IP packets and transmitting them over a
specific network.

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer

 TCP/IP 5-Layer Reference Model
• In real systems, a computer or a router can have multiple
network interfaces and multiple protocols can occur at
each layer.
• TCP/IP Internet protocol software is much more complex.

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer,

 Protocol Layering Principle
• OSI model and TCP/IP Internet model both follow layering
principle.

• The operation of layered protocols is based on a

fundamental idea.

The layering principle offers:

• Protocol design independence
– Protocol in each layer can be altered independent of other layer
protocols.
• Definition of the end-to-end property

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer

 Layering Principle in a Network

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer,

 Layering Principle in a TCP/IP Internet

Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Comer,

 Comparison between TCP/IP and OSI

• Session and presentation, are missing from the TCP/IP

protocol suite.

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite, p.29

 Comparison between TCP/IP and OSI
Two reasons for removing session and presentation layers:

• TCP/IP has more than one transport-layer protocol.

• Some of the functionalities of the session layer are
available in some of the transport layer protocols.
• So session layer is removed in TCP/IP.

• The application layer is not only one piece of software.

• If some of the functionalities mentioned in the session and
presentation are needed for a particular application, it can
be included in the development of that piece of software.
• So presentation layer is removed in TCP/IP.

Behrouz A. Forouzan-TCP IP Protocol Suite, p.29

 Functions of Router and Switch
Router:
1. Router functions in an Internet protocol based network
operate at the network layer (OSI Model's layer 3).
2. The primary function of a router is to
connect networks together and keep certain kinds of
broadcast traffic under control.
3. It Restrict broadcasts to the LAN.
4. Calculate 'best paths' to reach network destinations.
Switch:
1. Layer 2 switching (or Data Link layer switching) is the
process of using devices’ MAC addresses on a LAN to
segment a network.
2. Used to connect computers inside a LAN.
 Comparison between Router and Switch

Router Switch

Works in the Network layer of OSI Works in the data link layer of OSI
or TCP/IP suite. or TCP/IP suite.
Uses IP address for forwarding the Uses MAC addresses for
packets. forwarding the packets.
Used for interconnection of Used to connect computers within
different networks (LANs). a LAN.
Acts as default gateway if packets Packets can be sent only within the
at destined for different network. same network.
 SP3 Protocol Framework
• Service:
– The Service defines what the protocol does, not how it
is done.
• Purpose:
– The Purpose is the specific functionality, such as flow
control, error correction, data transfer, etc., that the
protocol provides.
• Packets:
– The Packet layout determines how the various bits and
fields within the packet are defined, assembled and
used.
• Procedures:
– The Procedures describe the various packet
exchanges and the purpose for each exchange.
 Link Level Protocol
• High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit level
protocol.

• Developed by the International Organization for

Standardization (ISO).

• ISO 3309 and ISO 4335.

• Packetization standard for serial links.

 HDLC:
Stations Defined in HDLC:

• Primary station: Responsible for controlling the operation of

the link. Frames issued by the primary are called commands.

• Secondary station: Operates under the control of the primary

station. Frames issued by a secondary are called responses.
The primary maintains a separate logical link with each
secondary station on the line.

• Combined station: Combines the features of primary and

secondary. A combined station may issue both commands and
responses without any permission from any other stations on
the link.
 HDLC:
Link configurations in HDLC:

• Unbalanced configuration: Consists of one primary and

one or more secondary stations and supports both full-
duplex and half-duplex transmission.
• Supports Point to Point or Multi-point networks.

Computer Networks, Data Link control Version 2 CSE IIT, Kharagpur

 HDLC:
Link configurations in HDLC:

• Balanced configuration: The balanced configuration in an

HDLC link consists of two or more combined stations.
• Each of the stations has equal and complimentary responsibility
compared to each other.
• Supports only Point to Point networks.
• Full - Duplex or Half - Duplex operation.

Computer Networks, Data Link control Version 2 CSE IIT, Kharagpur

 HDLC:
Link configurations in HDLC:

• Symmetrical Configuration: It consists of two

independent point-to-point, unbalanced station
configurations.

• Each station has a primary and secondary status. Each

station is logically considered as two stations.

Computer Networks, Data Link control Version 2 CSE IIT, Kharagpur

 HDLC:
Modes of Operation in HDLC:
• A mode in HDLC is the relationship between two devices
involved in an exchange.

• The mode describes who controls the link.

Three modes of operation:

• Normal Response Mode (NRM)
• Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM)
• Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)

Computer Networks, Data Link control Version 2 CSE IIT, Kharagpur

 HDLC:
Modes of Operation in HDLC:
Normal Response Mode (NRM)
• The primary station initiates transfers to the secondary
station.

• The secondary station can only transmit a response

when, and only when, it is instructed to do so by the
primary station.

• Normal Response Mode is only used within an

unbalanced configuration.

• Used in multi-point lines, where the primary station

controls the link.

Computer Networks, Data Link control Version 2 CSE IIT, Kharagpur

 HDLC:
Modes of Operation in HDLC:
Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM)

• The primary station doesn't initiate transfers to the secondary

station.
• The secondary station does not have to wait to receive explicit
permission from the primary station to transfer any frames.
• This mode can reduce overhead on the link, as no frames
needed to be transferred to give the secondary station
permission.
• In Half-duplex mode, the secondary station must wait until it
detects an idle channel before it can transfer any frames.
• In full-duplex mode, secondary can transfer any time.
• Used in point-to-point link to reduce overhead.

Computer Networks, Data Link control Version 2 CSE IIT, Kharagpur

 HDLC:
Modes of Operation in HDLC:
Asynchronous Balanced Mode

• This mode is used in case of combined stations.

• There is no need for permission on the part of any station

in this mode.

• This is because combined stations do not require any sort

of instructions to perform any task on the link.

Computer Networks, Data Link control Version 2 CSE IIT, Kharagpur

 HDLC:
Non-Operation modes in HDLC:

• Normal Disconnected Mode (NDM)

• Asynchronous Disconnected Mode (ADM)
• Initialization Mode (IM)

Computer Networks, Data Link control Version 2 CSE IIT, Kharagpur

 HDLC Frame Structures
• Information transfer format command and response (I-
Frame)
– Transfer sequentially numbered frames, each containing an
information field, across the data link.

Computer Networks, Data Link control Version 2 CSE IIT, Kharagpur

 HDLC Frame Structures
• Supervisory format command and responses (S-Frame)
– Acknowledgment, polling, temporary suspension of information
transfer, or error recovery.

Computer Networks, Data Link control Version 2 CSE IIT, Kharagpur

 HDLC Frame Structures
• Unnumbered Format Commands and responses (U-
Frame)
– Used to perform link initialization, link disconnection and other link
control functions.

Computer Networks, Data Link control Version 2 CSE IIT, Kharagpur

 HDLC Frame Structures
• Flag Field: Flags are continuously transmitted on the link between
frames to keep the link active.

• Address Field: Each station on the link has a unique address.

• Control Field: acknowledgment of frames, requests for re-

transmission, link initialization, link disconnection, etc.,

• FCS: Used for error detection, using Cyclic Redundancy Check.

Computer Networks, Data Link control Version 2 CSE IIT, Kharagpur

 Internet Standards Process
• Internet Standard is a thoroughly tested specification.
– It is useful to and adhered to by those who work with the Internet.

• A specification attains Internet standard status after a strict

procedure.

• A specification begins as an Internet draft.

– Internet draft is a work-in-progress document.
– Internet draft has six month lifetime.

• If Internet authorities recommend, an Internet Draft is

published as a Request for Comments (RFC).
• Each RFC is edited, assigned a number, and made available
to all interested parties.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan, p.10

 Maturity Levels of RFCs
• An RFC, during its lifetime, falls into one of six maturity
levels.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan, p.11

 Maturity Levels of RFCs
• Proposed Standard:
– A specification that is stable, well understood, and of sufficient
interest to the Internet community.
– At this level, the specification is usually tested and implemented by
several different groups.

• Draft Standard:
– A proposed standard is elevated to draft standard status after at
least two successful independent and interoperable
implementations.

• Internet Standard:
– A draft standard reaches Internet standard status after
demonstrations of successful implementation.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan, p.11

 Maturity Levels of RFCs
• Historic:
– The historic RFCs are significant from a historical perspective.
– Either superseded by later specifications or have never passed the
necessary maturity levels to become an Internet standard.

• Experimental:
– Describes work related to an experimental situation that does not
affect the operation of the Internet.
– This RFC should not be implemented in any functional Internet
service.

• Informational:
– Contains general, historical, or tutorial information related to the
Internet.
– Usually written by someone in a non-Internet organization, such as
vendor.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan, p.12

 Requirement Levels of RFCs

• RFCs are classified into five requirement levels.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan, p.12

 Requirement Levels of RFCs
• Required:
– An RFC is labeled required if it must be implemented by all
Internet systems to achieve minimum conformance.
– IP, ICMP protocols are required to be implemented by all systems.

• Recommended:
– Not required for minimum conformance.
– It is recommended because of its usefulness.

• Elective:
– An RFC labeled elective is not required and not recommended.
– A system can use it for its own benefit.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan, p.12

 Requirement Levels of RFCs
• Limited Use:
– Should be used only in limited situations.
– Experimental RFCs fall under this category.

• Not Recommended:
– Inappropriate for general use.
– Normally a historic (deprecated) RFC may fall under this category.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan, p.12

 Internet Administration

• The Internet Society (ISOC) is an international, nonprofit

organization formed in 1992 to provide support for the Internet
standards process.
• The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) is the technical advisor to
the ISOC. IAB oversees the continuing development of TCP/IP
protocol.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan, p.13
 Internet Administration

• Internet Engineering Task Force:

– A forum of working groups managed by the Internet Engineering
Steering Group (IESG).
– IETF is responsible for identifying operational problems and
proposing solutions to these problems.
• The areas IETF work in are (but not limited to):
– 1. Applications, 2. Internet protocols, 3. Routing, 4. Operations
– 5. User services, 6. Network management, 7. Transport
– 8. Internet protocol next generation (IPng), 9. Security

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan, p.13

 Internet Administration

• Internet Research Task Force:

– A forum of working groups managed by the Internet Research
Steering Group (IRSG).

• Unlike IETF, which only overlooks solving operational problems

(problems in hand), IRTF identifies future problems.

• IRTF focuses on long-term research topics related to Internet

protocols, applications, architecture, and technology.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan, p.14

 Standards Organizations
• Standards are developed through the cooperation:
– Standards creation committees.
– Forums.
– Government regulatory agencies.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan.

 Standards Creation Committees
• International Standards Organization (ISO):
– The ISO is an entirely voluntary organization dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards.
• International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunications
Standards Sector (ITU-T):
– Formed by United Nations (UN).
– Consultative Committee for International Telegraphy and
Telephony (CCITT) is a pert of ITU.
– Devoted to the research and establishment of standards for
telecommunications.
– Name of CCITT changed to ITU-T in March 1, 1993.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan.

 Standards Creation Committees
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI):
– ANSI is a completely private, nonprofit corporation not affiliated
with the U.S. federal government.

• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

(IEEE):
– This is the largest professional engineering society in the world.
– It aims to advance theory, creativity, and product quality in the
fields of electrical engineering, electronics, and radio as well as in
all related branches of engineering.
• Electronic Industries Association (EIA):
– The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) is a nonprofit
organization devoted to the promotion of electronics
manufacturing concerns.
– Its major contribution is physical connection interfaces and
electronic signaling specifications for data communications.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan.

 Forums
• Standards committees are procedural bodies and by
nature slow moving.

• Forums are made up of representatives from

interested corporations.

• Forums are special-interest groups.

• Forums work with universities and users to test,

evaluate, and standardize new technologies.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan.

 Regulatory Agencies
• All communications technology is subject to
regulation by government.

• Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the

United States.

• The FCC has authority over interstate and

international commerce as it relates to
communications.

• Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) in India.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan.