Lubricant

In all types of machines, the surfaces of moving/sliding/rolling parts rub

against each other and due to that a resistance (i.e. friction) is offered to
their movement. This causes a lot of wear and tear of surfaces of moving
parts and a large amount of energy lost in form of heat and causes less
efficiency of machine.

The frictional resistance can be minimized by using a suitable substance,

which forms a thin layer in between moving parts. Therefore, any
substance introduced between two moving/sliding surfaces with a view to
reduce the frictional resistance between them is known as Lubricant. So
the frictional resistance and consequent destruction of material will be
minimized.
Function of lubricant
Reduces surface deformation, wear and tear, so the direct contact between
rubbing surfaces is avoided.
Reduces loss of energy in the form heat
Reduces waste of energy, hence enhancement of machine efficiency
Reduces frictional heat, so expansion of metal and seizure of moving surfaces will
be reduced
It act as coolant to carry away heat.
It keeps out dirt
It act as seal and prevent corrocion and rusting, it transmit fluid power.
 Mechanism of Lubrication
Three types of mechanism:

Fluid-film or thick-film or hydrodynamic lubrication

Surfaces separated by a thick film (at least 1000 Å thick), which
covers/fills the irregularities of the sliding/moving surfaces and
thereby no direct contact between the material surfaces
The only resistance to the movement is due to the internal
resistance between the particles of the lubricant moving each other.
So the lubricant should have the minimum viscosity under working
condition and at the same time it should remain in place and
separate the surfaces.
Fluid film lubrication is
satisfactorily done byb
hydrocarbon oils. These are
generally blended with
selected long chain
polymersin oreder to
maintain viscocity of the oil
constant in all seasons of
the year.
Here the friction depends on the viscosity, thickness of lubricant,
the relative velocity and area of the moving/sliding surfaces

Hydrodynamic friction
A shaft running at a fair speed as well as in well lubricated bearing
with not too high load. Lubricating oil covers the irregularities of the
shaft as well as the bearing surfaces. Thus the resistance to
movement is only due to the internal resistance of the lubricant.

Application:
Delicate instruments, light machines like watches, clocks, guns, sewing
machines, scientific instruments

Hydrocarbon oils (to maintain viscosity of the oil in all seasons, blend
long chain polymers)
Boundary lubrication or Thin-film lubrication
When a continuous film of lubricant cannot persist and direct metal-
metal contact is possible due to certain reasons

This happens when

A shaft starts moving from rest or
The speed is very low or
The load is very high
Viscosity of the oil is too low

Here a thin layer of oil lubricant is adsorbed on both the metallic

surfaces, which avoid direct metal-to-metal contact and the load is
carried by the layers of the adsorbed lubricant on the both metal
surfaces.

Eg. Vegetable or animal oils adsorbed on metal surfaces physically or

chemically, but they tend to break down at high temperature.
Mineral oils (thermally stable) can also be used with small amounts of
fatty acids or fatty oils (which increases adhesion property)
 for boundary lubrication molecules should have
1. Long hydrocarbon chain chains
2. lateral attraction b\w the chains
3.Polar groups to promote wetting or spreading over the surface
4. active functional group which can form chemical bonds with metal or
other surfaces.
5.high viscosity index
6. resistance to heat and oxidation
7. good oiliness and low pour point and oxidation. For eg. Graphite, MoS2,
mineral oils vegetable oils,

Extreme Pressure Lubrication

When the moving/sliding surfaces are under very high pressure
and speed, a high local temperature is attained and under such
condition liquid lubricants fail to stick and may decompose and
even vaporize(High Speed).

How to solve this problem?

Special additives like organic compounds having active radicals or
groups such as Cl, S or P. These compounds react with metallic
surfaces at high temperature and form metallic compounds and
serve as good lubricants
Classification of Lubricants
Liquids or lubricating oils
Semi-solid or greases
Solid

Lubricating oils
Mostly mineral or petroleum oils
Advantages:
Cheap
Available
Quite stable under service condition
Disadvantages:
Poor oiliness (weaker adhesion), can be improved by adding high
molecular weight compounds like oleic acid, stearic acid
Impurities
Wax (if not removed, raises pour-point which makes the
lubricating oil unfit for use at low temperature)
Certain constituents get easily oxidized and cause sludge
formation
Asphalt etc. undergo decomposition at higher temperature,
causing carbon deposition and sludge formation.
Purification
(a) Dewaxing: Oil is mixed with suitable solvent like propane,
trichloro ethylene etc. and the wax is precipitated and then removed.

(b) Acid Refining:

To remove naphthenic and asphaltic impurities
Dewaxed oil is treated with Conc. H2SO4 and then agitated. Major
impurities are converted into tarry sludges, which are removed by
filtration. Filtrate is neutralized by adding calculated amount of
NaOH to remove excess acid.
 (c) Solvent Refining
Oil is mixed with a suitable solvent (like benzene, dichloro ethyl
ether) in which it is immiscible, but the impurities are soluble.

Separation in two layers

Oil Layer Solvent layer

Free of impurities, but containing impurities
containing some solvent
Merits of solvent refining
method:
Distillation of oil layer Cheaper
Refined oil left behind the solvent Removes asphaltic materials
satisfactorily
Higher yields
Refined product shows less
change in viscosity with
temperature
Demerits of solvent refining:
Refined oil becomes less resistant to oxidation, due to removal of
oxidation inhibitors present in it.
Refined oil possesses lower oiliness.
Hence, it is necessary to add some additives to the refined oil

Blended Oil
No single oil serves as the most satisfactory lubricant for many of
the modern machines. So some specific additives are added to
achieve desired lubricating properties.

Different additives:
(i) Oiliness carrier
To increase oiliness add Vegetable oil or fatty acids (palmitic/stearic
acid)
(ii) Extreme Pressure Additives
Under extreme pressure, the film of lubricating oil is difficult to
maintain and the oil need to have a high oiliness. So besides improving
oiliness, other high pressure additives are used, which are adsorbed
on the metal surface or chemically react with metal, producing a
surface layer of low shear strength.
 Greases or Semi-solid lubricants
Soap dispersed throughout a liquid lubricating medium (which could be
petroleum oil or any synthetic oil containing additives if required)

Preparation:
Saponification of fatty acids with alkali, followed by adding hot
lubricating oil under agitation. The total amount of mineral oil
determines the consistency of finished grease.

Soaps are gelling agent and form interconnected structure in added

oils ― hence the lubricating greases have gel like structure.

Heat resistance of greases can be improved by adding inorganic solid

thickening agents (finely divided clay, colloidal silica)
Applications:
Higher frictional resistance than oils, so greases can support much
heavier loads at lower speeds, sudden jerks etc. where oil cannot
remain in place (eg. rail axel box)
Bearing and gears working at high temperature
Where dripping or spurting of oils is undesirable (machines preparing
papers, textiles, edible articles etc.)
The main function of soap is thickening agent so that the grease can
stick firmly on the metal surface
The nature of soap decide:
(i) Temperature up to which grease can be used
(ii) Its consistency
(iii) Its water and oxidation resistance
So grease can be classified depending on the soap used.

Calcium-based greases or Cup-grease

Emulsion of calcium soaps and petroleum oils. Prepared by adding
requisite amount of calcium hydroxide to a hot oil under agitation.
Cheapest, water resistant and most commonly used.
Disadvantage: Cannot be used above 80°C, as oil and soap begin to
separate.

Soda-based greases
Petroleum oils thickened by adding sodium soaps.
They can be used up to 175°C, hence suitable for using in ball
bearings, where lubricants get heated due to friction.
But they are not water-resistant as sodium soaps are soluble in water
Lithium-based Greases
Petroleum oils thickened by adding lithium soaps. They are water-
resistant and suitable for use at low temperature [up to 15°C] only

Axle greases
Very cheap resin greases, prepared by adding lime (or any heavy
metal hydroxide) to resin and fatty oils.
They are water resistant and suitable for less delicate machines
working under high loads and at low speeds.

Solid Lubricants
They are used where―
Lubricating film cannot be secured by using lubricating oils or
greases
Contamination (by dust etc.) of lubricating oil or grease is
unacceptable (eg. in commutator brushes of electric generators or
motors)
Operating temperature or load is too high, even semi-solid can also
fail
Combustible lubricants must be avoided
Solid lubricants are used either in dry powder form or mixed with
oils. The solids can fill up the spots on the surface of moving parts
and form solid films, which have low frictional resistance.

Some organic substance are mixed with solid lubricants so that they
may stick firmly to the metal surface.

Example of Solid Lubricants

Graphite
Graphite contains flat plates, one atom thick which are held together
by only weak forces, so that parallel layers can slide over one
another.
Additionally, it is not-inflammable and not oxidized in air below 375°C
and in absence of air, it can be used even a very high temperature.

Graphite is used in the form of powder or as suspension (in water or

in oil in presence of en emulsifying agent like tannin). When graphite
is dispersed in oil it is called as “Oildag” and when it is dispersed in
water it is called as “Aquadag”.
Application
Oildag is useful for Internal Combustion Engines, because it forms
a film between the piston rings and the cylinder and gives a tight-fit
contact, thereby increasing compression.
Aquadag is useful where a lubricant free from oil is needed (eg. in
foodstuffs industry)
Graphite is also mixed with greases to from graphite-greases,
which are used at still higher temperature.

Molybdenum disulphide
Sandwich like structure in which a layer of Mo
atoms lies between two layers of S atoms and
have poor inter-laminar attraction. Therefore
low shear strength in a direction parallel to
the layers.
Low coefficient of friction and stable in air
upto 400°C.
Synthetic Lubricant
Working temperature range: -50 to 250°C
Having low freezing point, high viscosity index and non-
inflammable, high thermal stability, high flash point etc.
Application: Aircraft engines
Eg. polymerized hydrocarbons, polyglycols etc.

Lubricating Emulsion
Two-phase system of two immiscible liquids, one being dispersed as
fine droplet in the other. A dispersion system is inherently unstable,
and to increase its stability, a stabilizer (known as emulsifier) is
added.
Example of emulsifier: Molecule having both hydrophobic and
hydrophilic ends (sodium salts of fatty acids) and results in the
formation of protective film around the dispersed droplets.

Two types of emulsion

Oil in water (lower volume of oil) and
Water in oil (lower volume of water)
Application of Lubricating Emulsions
Oil in water (Cooling and lubricating liquid for cutting tools)
Water in oil (Lubricate compressors and pneumatic tools)

Properties of lubricants
Viscosity
Main determinant of the operating characteristic of lubricant―:
If too low viscosity, oil film cannot be maintained between two
moving/sliding surfaces
If too high viscosity, excessive friction will result

Effect of Temperature on Viscosity

Viscosity of a good lubricating oil should not change much with
change in temperature, so that it can be used continuously under
varying condition of temperature.

The rate at which the viscosity of an oil changes with

temperature is measured by an arbitrary scale, known as
“Viscosity Index (V.I)”
Significance of V.I.
If the viscosity of an oil falls rapidly on increasing temperature, it
has low V.I. and if viscosity of an oil is only slightly affected on
raising temperature, then it has high V.I.

Flash and Fire Points

Flash point
The lowest temperature at which the lubricant
oil gives off enough vapors that ignite for a
moment, when a tiny flame is brought near it.
Fire point
The lowest temperature at which the vapors of
the oil burn continuously for at least five
seconds, when a tiny flame is brought near it.
In most cases fire point are 5 to 40° higher
than the flash-points.
Importance:
When the oil is exposed to high temperature
service. A good lubricant should have flash
point at least above the temperature at which
it is to be used.
Cloud and Pour Points
When a oil is cooled slowly, the temperature at which it becomes
cloudy or hazy in appearance is called its “Cloud Point”
While the temperature at which the oil ceases to flow or pour is
called “Pour Point”

Significance:
Cloud and pour points indicate the suitability of lubricants in cold
condition. Lubricant used in machines working at low temperatures
should have low pour point, otherwise solidification of lubricant will
cause jamming of the machine.

Effect of impurities on pour point: Presence of wax in lubricant oil

raise the pour point
Emulsification
Oil can form emulsion with water and the emulsions have a tendency
to collect dirt etc. Thereby causing abrasion and wearing out of the
lubricated parts of the machine.
So a good lubricating oil should form an emulsion with water, which
breaks off quickly.

How to determine?
20 ml oil is taken in a test tube and steam of 100°C is bubbled
through it, till the temperature of oil is raised to 90°C. The tube is
then placed in a bath maintained at 90°C and the time in seconds is
noted, when the oil and water separate out in distinct layers.
The time in seconds in which oil and water emulsion separates out in
distinct layers is called Steam Emulsion Number (SEN). A good
lubricant should have a low SEN.

Corrosion Stability
To retard corrosion effect of oil, inhibitors like organic compounds
containing P, As, etc. are added.
Decomposition stability
Lubricants must be stable at operating temperatures.
Three types of chemical decomposition:
Oxidation
Hydrolysis
Pyrolysis
Aniline Point
Minimum equilibrium solution temperature for equal volumes of aniline
and oil sample.
It is determined by mixing mechanically equal volumes of oil sample
and aniline in a test tube. The mixture is heated, till homogeneous
solution is obtained. Then the tube is allowed to cool at a controlled
rate. The temperature at which the two phases (oil and aniline)
separate out is recorded as “Aniline Point”.
Significance:
Aniline point gives an indication of possible deterioration of oil in
contact with rubber sealing, packing etc. Aromatic hydrocarbons
present in oil can dissolve natural and synthetic rubbers. Therefore
low aromatic content in lubricant is desirable. A higher aniline point
means higher percentage of paraffinic hydrocarbons and lower
percentage of aromatic hydrocarbons.
Precipitation Number
Percentage of asphalt present in oil.

Neutralization Number
Determines acidic and basic constituents in an oil. Determination of
acidic constituents is more common and it is referred to as “Acid
number or acid value”, which is defined as the amount in milligram
of KOH required to neutralize the free acids in 1 g of oil
Higher acid number will lead to corrosion and formation of gum and
sludge.

Saponification Number
The amount in milligram of KOH required to saponify 1 g of oil.
Mineral does not saponify at all, but vegetable and animal oils do so.
So this number will help to ascertain the type of oil whether animal or
vegetable.
Properties of grease
Consistency or yield value
The distance in tenth of millimeter that a standard cone penetrates
vertically into the grease sample, under standard conditions of load,
temperature and time.

The value of load, temperature and

time are taken as 150g, 25°C and 5
sec respectively. Consistency of a
grease sample depends on the
structure and interaction of gelling
elements in it and to some extent on
the viscosity of oil used. The
consistency is determined by
Penetrometer.

Penetrometer
Selection of Lubricants
Lubricants for cutting tools
Having high friction and may cause overheating
For Heavy cutting: mineral oils of low viscosity
For light cutting: Oil-emulsions

Lubricants for Internal Combustion Engines

Lubricants to be exposed at higher temperature — hence
high viscosity index
high thermal stability and
 good oxidation stability are desirable
Eg. petroleum oils with additives which impart high viscosity index
and oxidation stability are used as lubricants.

Lubricants for gears

They are subject to extreme pressure and hence require good
oiliness. So thick mineral lubricating oils containing extreme pressure
additives.
Lubricant for delicate instruments (like watches, clocks, guns,
sewing machines, scientific instruments etc.)
Not exposed to high temperature, water or extreme loads, hence
thin vegetable and animal oils can be used

Lubricant for transformers

The functions of lubricants in electrical transformer are to insulate
the windings and to carry away the heat generated when the
transformer is on-load.

Therefore highly refined mineral oils of

high insulating quality,
optimum oxidation resistance and
chemical stability are employed.

Lubricant for Refrigeration System

low pour point,
low viscosity and
low cloud point is needed.
Eg. Naphthalene based oils