Compiled and written : Dr.

Amini Golestani,
Taher, IRIB Qom University
 Outlines

 Introduction
 Definition of communication, Interpersonal communication,
counseling
 Elements of communication
 Types of communications
 Communication process
 Characteristics of effective communication
 Knowledge and skills needed for effective interpersonal
communication
 Characteristics of effective counseling
 Barriers to effective communication Tools for effective counseling
 Models of communications
 Secular Propaganda Strategies
 What is Communication?
Communication can be defined as
the process by which people share
ideas, experience, knowledge and
feelings through the transmission of
symbolic messages.

The means of communication are

usually spoken or written words,
pictures or symbols. But we also give
information through body language,
gestures, and looks, facial expressions
can show how we feel and what we think
about an issue or another person.
What are the most common ways
we communicate?

Written Word
 Message
Text

Meaning

Producer Referent
Reader
Figure 16.1
Communication is a dynamic,
systemic or contextual,
irreversible and proactive
process in which
communicators construct
personal meanings through
their symbolic interactions
(Wood, 1964)
What part of the communication process has the
sender translating the message into symbols or
language?
A. Message
B. Encoding
C. Decoding
D. Feedback
 Sender – person wishing to share information
with some other person
 Message – what information to communicate
 Encoding – sender translates the message into
symbols or language
 Noise – refers to anything that hampers any stage
of the communication process
 Receiver – person or group for which the message
is intended
 Medium – pathway through which an encoded
message is transmitted to a receiver
 Decoding - critical point where the receiver
interprets and tries to make sense of the message
 Feedback phase is initiated by the receiver
 Receiver decides what message to send to the
original sender
 Feedback eliminates misunderstandings, ensures
that messages are correctly interpreted
 Verbal Communication
◦ The encoding of messages into words, either written or
spoken
 Nonverbal
◦ The encoding of messages by means of facial
expressions, body language, and styles of dress.
 Perception
◦ process through which people select, organize, and
interpret sensory input to give meaning and
order to the world around them
 Biases
◦ systematic tendencies to use information about others in
ways that can result in inaccurate perceptions
 Stereotypes
◦ often inaccurate beliefs about the characteristics of
particular groups of people
◦ can interfere with the encoding and decoding of messages
 Types of Communication
Downwards Communication : Highly Directive, from Senior
to subordinates, to assign duties, give instructions, to inform
to offer feed back, approval to highlight problems etc.

Upwards Communications : It is non directive in nature from

down below, to give feedback, to inform about
progress/problems, seeking approvals.

Lateral or Horizontal Communication: Among colleagues,

peers at same level for information level for information
sharing for coordination, to save time.
Executive Director
Manager

Vice President

A.G.M. Supervisor 1 Supervisor 2 Supervisor 3

Manager

Supervisor
Horizontal Comm.
Forman
What is the amount of information that a
communication medium can carry?
A. Channel capacity
B. Information richness
C. Bandwidth
D. Message capacity
 The amount of information that a communication
medium can carry
 The extent to which the medium enables the
sender and receiver to reach a common
understanding
Figure 16.2
 Face-to-Face
◦ Has highest information
richness.
◦ Can take advantage of
verbal and nonverbal
signals.

16-21
 Face-to-Face
◦ Provides for instant feedback.
◦ Management by wandering around takes advantage of this
with informal talks to workers.
◦ Video conferences provide much of this richness and
reduce travel costs and
meeting times.
 Spoken Communication Electronically
Transmitted
◦ Has the second highest information richness.
◦ Telephone conversations are information rich with tone
of voice, sender’s emphasis, and quick feedback, but
provide no visual nonverbal cues.
 Personally Addressed Written Communication
◦ Has a lower richness than the verbal forms of
communication, but still is directed at a given person.
◦ Personal addressing helps ensure receiver actually reads
the message—personal letters and e-mail are common
forms.
 Personally Addressed Written Communication
◦ Does not provide instant feedback to the sender although
sender may get feedback later.
◦ Excellent media for complex messages requesting follow-
up actions by receiver.
 E-mail allows telecommuting employees to
work from home and keep in contact.
 The use of e-mail is growing rapidly and e-mail
etiquette is expected:
◦ Typing messages in all CAPITALS is seen as
“screaming” at the receiver.
◦ Punctuate your messages for easy reading and don’t
ramble on.
◦ Pay attention to spelling and treat the message like a
written letter.
 Impersonal Written Communication
◦ Has the lowest information richness.
◦ Good for messages to many receivers where little or
feedback is expected (e.g., newsletters, reports)
 Communication Networks
◦ The pathways along which information flows in groups
and teams and throughout the organization.
 Type of communication network depends on:
◦ The nature of the group’s tasks
◦ The extent to which group members need to communicate
with each other to achieve group goals.
Type of Network
Wheel Network Information flows to and from one central
member.

Chain Network Members communicate only with the people next

to them in the sequence.

Wheel and chain networks provide little interaction.

Circle Network Members communicate with others close to them

in terms of expertise, experience, and location.

All-Channel Networks found in teams with high levels of

Network communications between each member and all
others.
 Communication
Networks in Groups
and Teams

Figure 16.3
•Message
•Source (sender)
•Channel
•Receiver
•Filter
•Feedback
 The Communication Process

Medium

Barrier
SENDER RECEIVER
(encodes) (decodes)
Barrier

Feedback/Response
Effective communication requires the message to
be:
 Clear and concise
 Accurate
 Relevant to the needs of the receiver
 Timely
 Meaningful
 Applicable to the situation
Effective communication requires the sender to:

 Know the subject well

 Be interested in the subject
 Know the audience members and establish a
rapport with them
 Speak at the level of the receiver
 Choose an appropriate communication channel
The channel should be:
 Appropriate
 Affordable
 Appealing
The receiver should:
 Be aware, interested, and willing to accept the
message
 Listen attentively
 Understand the value of the message
 Provide feedback
An effective verbal An effective nonverbal
communicator: communicator:
 Clarifies  Relaxes
 Listens  Opens up
 Encourages  Leans toward the
empathically other person
 Acknowledges  Establishes eye
 Restates/repeats contact
 Shows appropriate
facial expressions
 Adequate knowledge of  Ability to paraphrase and
subject area summarize the concerns of
 An understanding of one's individuals and the
own values and willingness community.
to withhold judgment about  Ability to observe and
the other people’s values. interpret behavior of other
 Skills in verbal and nonverbal people.
communication.  Ability to use language that
 Ability to show empathy and other people understand.
encourage others.  Skills to effectively use
 Skills in asking questions support materials.
and listening.  Confidence
 Tolerance and patience  Flexibility
 Barriers to communication
• Language
• Values and beliefs
• Sex/gender and age
• Economic status
• Educational level
• Physical barriers
• Attitude
• Timing
• Understanding of message
• Trust
 Physical barriers- yelling across the hall,
communicating from different locations
 Perceptual barriers- we all see the world differently
 Emotional barriers- withholding thoughts and
feelings
 Cultural barriers- group behaviors
 Language barriers- not everyone is familiar with all
languages or jargon
 Physical barriers- try to use face-to-face
communication frequently

 Perceptual barriers- recognize we have different

values and try to recognize where the person is
speaking from

 Emotional barriers- try to build trust

 Cultural barriers- recognize differences in meaning,
pacing, volume and gesture, space, and touch

 Language barriers- learn more about different cultures,

relax, try to find a place where there are not many
additional stimuli to take away from the exchange of
messages
- ask what people need in order to communicate most
effectively
- Solicit feedback
WHY MODELS?
• Presents the essential nature of what it describes by
highlighting key features thought important by the model
builder.
• Visualizes for us how certain features are related to another
and provides a more orderly understanding that we might
have without the model.
• At another level models have heuristic value; that is, they
provide new ways to conceive of hypothetical ideas and
relationships.
 The Aristotelian Model
• Was first developed among the Greeks in ancient times
• Greek citizens thus placed a “premium” on one’s persuasiveness to his audience.
• This quality of persuasiveness is called “ethos.”
• Usually, a speaker’s ethos depends on his or her character however Aristotle’s Ars
Rhetorica also mentioned the following factors to affect ethos:
1. content
2. arrangement
3. manner of delivery
4. ethos
5. arguments
6. logos
7. pathos
The Aristotelian Model

(Message) (Listener)
 The LASSWELL Model

WHO IN WHAT WITH WHAT

SAYS WHAT TO WHOM
Communicat CHANNEL EFFECT
Message Receiver
or Medium Effect

Verbal model advanced by Harold Lasswell in 1948

Sequential or linear pattern
 The LASSWELL Model
As a social scientist, Lasswell premised his model upon three key
functions of communication in human society:
(1) surveillance – a function of diplomats and political leaders to alert
society to the dangers and opportunities it faces
(2) correlation – a function carried out by institutions such as educators
and poll-takers designed to gather, coordinate, and integrate into
meaningful form the responses of society towards changes in the
environment
(3) transmission – a function carried out by institutions like the family,
church, school, and community in order to hand down values, norms,
customs, and traditions to the next generations
The LASSWELL Model

Lasswell:
“Communication must perform its key functions to protect, fortify,
and enhance a nation’s stability.”
The SHANNON-WEAVER Model
 The SHANNON-WEAVER Model
 A model originally designed for telephone communication:
EXAMPLE:
phone call – information source
telephone – transmitter converts message into electronic signal
telephone – receiver that reconverts electronic signal into a message
message – heard by another person, destination
distorting signals – noise
 Depicts communication as one-way or of linear sequence
 Depicts noise as an element found ONLY within the message and not
throughout the communication process.
 Mechanical in nature, terms
SOURCE ENCODER SIGNAL DECODER DESTINATION

Source Encoder Signal

Decoder

Interpreter

Encoder
The schramm’s Model
The schramm’s Model
 Wilbur Schramm tried many models to convey his
insights and finally his fourth model was the charm!

 His fourth model emphasizes the “dynamism of human

communication.”

 People interact in a constant, cyclical fashion.

 His model highlights the process AND interaction.
BERLO’S Model
BERLO’S Model
Berlo acknowledged the complexity of the
communication process as evidenced by the
influence of several factors on communication,
to include an all-encompassing system --- the
communicator’s socio-cultural framework.
WHITE’S Model
 WHITE’S Model
 Eugene White gave his communication students a sequence of events
that takes place in communication. These eight stages of oral
communication are the following:

1. Thinking – a desire, feeling, or an emotion provides a speaker a stimulus

to communicate a need

2. Symbolizing – before he can utter sounds, a speaker has to know the

code of oral language with which to represent his ideas and in order to
make his selection
 WHITE’S Model
 Eugene White gave his communication students a sequence of events
that takes place in communication. These eight stages of oral
communication are the following:
3. Expressing – the speaker then uses his vocal mechanism to produce the
sounds of language accompanied by facial expressions, gestures, and
body stance

4. Transmitting – waves of sound spreading at 1,000 feet per second and

waves of light travelling at a speed of 186,000 miles per second carry
the speaker’s message to the listeners
 WHITE’S Model
5. Receiving – sound waves impinge upon the listener’s ears after which
the resulting nerve impulses reach the brain via the auditory nerve; light
wave strikes the listener’s eyes after which the resulting nerve impulses
reach the brain via the optic nerve

6. Decoding – the listener interprets the language symbols he receives and

thinks further
 WHITE’S Model
5. Receiving – sound waves impinge upon the listener’s ears after which
the resulting nerve impulses reach the brain via the auditory nerve; light
wave strikes the listener’s eyes after which the resulting nerve impulses
reach the brain via the optic nerve

6. Decoding – the listener interprets the language symbols he receives and

thinks further
 WHITE’S Model
7. Feedbacking – the listener may manifest overt behavior like a nod, smile,
or yawn or he may not show any behavior at all (covert behavior like
fast heartbeat, a poker face, etc.)

8. Monitoring – while the speaker watches for signs of reception or

understanding of his message among his listeners, he is also attuned to
what’s going on inside him; the speaker is receiving, and decoding
messages about himself from his audience in order to adjust to the
particular situation
 WHITE’S Model
 Implies a step-by-step sequence that starts with
thinking in the speaker and ends with monitoring with
the speaker
 Communication is a repetitive, cyclical event but the
dynamic quality of interaction is not depicted.
 The speaker is the originator of the communication
process and the listener is a passive reactor who does not
initiate communication.
DANCE Model
 DANCE Model

Represented by a spiraling figure – helix

 The process of communication progresses or
moves forward in a cyclical fashion
 What we say now influences the future.
 No literal features or elements.

 Helix as a symbol for the dynamics of human

communication is visually powerful.
 Bandwagon

This technique tries to persuade everyone to join in and do the same

thing.
 Testimonial

An important person or famous figure endorses a product.

 Transfer

Good feelings, looks, or ideas transferred to the person for whom the
product is intended.
 Repetition
The product name or keyword or phrase is repeated several times.

How many times can you use the word “Fresh?”

 Emotional Words
Words such as luxury, beautiful, paradise, and economical are used to
evoke positive feelings in the viewer.
 Name-calling
Negative words are used to create an unfavorable opinion of the
competition in the viewer's mind.
 Faulty cause & effect
Use of a product is credited for creating a positive result.
 Compare & contrast
The viewer is led to believe one product is better than another, although
no real proof is offered.
 Black-and-White fallacy
 Presenting only two choices, with the product or
idea being propagated as the better choice. (e.g.,
"You are either with us, or you are with the enemy.")
 Demonizing the enemy
 Making individuals from the opposing nation,
from a different ethnic group, or those who
support the opposing viewpoint appear to be
subhuman (e.g., the Vietnam War-era term
"gooks" for National Front for the Liberation of
South Vietnam aka Vietcong, (or 'VC') soldiers),
worthless, or immoral, through suggestion or
false accusations.
 Half-truth
 A half-truth is a deceptive statement that
includes some element of truth. It comes in
several forms: the statement might be partly true,
the statement may be totally true but only part of
the whole truth, or it may utilize some deceptive
element, such as improper punctuation, or double
meaning, especially if the intent is to deceive,
evade, blame, or misrepresent the truth.
 Beautiful people
 The type of propaganda that deals with famous people or depicts
attractive, happy people. This makes other people think that if they
buy a product or follow a certain ideology, they too will be happy or
successful. (This is more used in advertising for products, instead
of political reasons)
 Big Lie
 The repeated articulation of a complex of events that justify
subsequent action. The descriptions of these events have elements
of truth, and the "big lie" generalizations merge and eventually
supplant the public's accurate perception of the underlying events.
After World War I the German Stab in the back explanation of the
cause of their defeat became a justification for Nazi re-
militarization and revanchist aggression.
 Common man
 The "'plain folks'" or "common man" approach attempts to convince the
audience that the propagandist's positions reflect the common sense of the
people. It is designed to win the confidence of the audience by
communicating in the common manner and style of the target audience.
Propagandists use ordinary language and mannerisms (and clothe their
message in face-to-face and audiovisual communications) in attempting to
identify their point of view with that of the average person. For example, a
propaganda leaflet may make an argument on a macroeconomic issue, such
as unemployment insurance benefits, using everyday terms: "given that the
country has little money during this recession, we should stop paying
unemployment benefits to those who do not work, because that is like
maxing out all your credit cards during a tight period, when you should be
tightening your belt." A common example of this type of propaganda is a
political figure, usually running for a placement, in a backyard or shop doing
daily routine things. This image appeals to the common person.
 Disinformation
 The creation or deletion of information from public records, in the
purpose of making a false record of an event or the actions of a
person or organization, including outright forgery of photographs,
motion pictures, broadcasts, and sound recordings as well as printed
documents.
 Euphemism
 A euphemism is a generally innocuous word or expression used in
place of one that may be found offensive or suggest something
unpleasant.
 Euphoria
 The use of an event that generates euphoria or happiness, or using
an appealing event to boost morale. Euphoria can be created by
declaring a holiday, making luxury items available, or mounting a
military parade with marching bands and patriotic messages.
 Exaggeration
 An exaggeration (or hyperbole) occurs when the most fundamental aspects
of a statement are true, but only to a certain degree. It is also seen as
"stretching the truth" or making something appear more powerful,
meaningful, or real than it actually is. Saying that a person ate 20 spring rolls
at a party when they actually ate 7 or 8 would be considered an exaggeration.
 Flag-waving
 An attempt to justify an action on the grounds that doing so will make one
more patriotic, or in some way benefit a group, country, or idea. The feeling
of patriotism this technique attempts to inspire may not necessarily diminish
or entirely omit one's capability for rational examination of the matter in
question.

 The Finnish Maiden - personification of Finnish nationalism

 Glittering generalities
 Glittering generalities are emotionally appealing words applied to a
product or idea, but present no concrete argument or analysis. A
famous example is the campaign slogan "Ford has a better idea!"
 Half-truth
 A half-truth is a deceptive statement that includes some element of
truth. It comes in several forms: the statement might be partly true,
the statement may be totally true but only part of the whole truth, or
it may utilize some deceptive element, such as improper punctuation,
or double meaning, especially if the intent is to deceive, evade, blame,
or misrepresent the truth.
 Intentional vagueness
 Generalities are deliberately vague so that the audience
may supply its own interpretations. The intention is to
move the audience by use of undefined phrases, without
analyzing their validity or attempting to determine their
reasonableness or application. The intent is to cause
people to draw their own interpretations rather than
simply being presented with an explicit idea. In trying to
"figure out" the propaganda, the audience forgoes
judgment of the ideas presented. Their validity,
reasonableness and application may still be considered.
 Labeling
 A Euphemism is used when the propagandist attempts to increase the
perceived quality, credibility, or credence of a particular ideal. A Dysphemism
is used when the intent of the propagandist is to discredit, diminish the
perceived quality, or hurt the perceived righteousness of the Mark. By
creating a 'label' or 'category' or 'faction' of a population, it is much easier to
make an example of these larger bodies, because they can uplift or defame
the Mark without actually incurring legal-defamation. Example: "Liberal" is a
dysphamsim intended to diminish the perceived credibility of a particular
Mark. By taking a displeasing argument presented by a Mark, the
propagandist can quote that person, and then attack 'liberals' in an attempt
to both (1) create a political battle-ax of unaccountable aggression and (2)
diminish the quality of the Mark. If the propagandist uses the label on too-
many perceivably credible individuals, muddying up the word can be done by
broadcasting bad-examples of 'liberals' into the media. Labeling can be
thought of as a sub-set of Guilt by association, another Logical Fallacy.
 Name-calling
 Propagandists use the name-calling technique to incite
fears and arouse prejudices in their hearers in the intent
that the bad names will cause hearers to construct a
negative opinion about a group or set of beliefs or ideas
that the propagandist would wish hearers to denounce.
The method is intended to provoke conclusions about a
matter apart from impartial examinations of facts. Name-
calling is thus a substitute for rational, fact-based
arguments against the an idea or belief on its own
merits.[3]
 Slogans
 A slogan is a brief, striking phrase that may include labeling and
stereotyping. Although slogans may be enlisted to support reasoned
ideas, in practice they tend to act only as emotional appeals.
Opponents of the US's invasion and occupation of Iraq use the slogan
"blood for oil" to suggest that the invasion and its human losses was
done to access Iraq's oil riches. On the other hand, "hawks" who argue
that the US should continue to fight in Iraq use the slogan "cut and
run" to suggest that it would be cowardly or weak to withdraw from
Iraq. Similarly, the names of the military campaigns, such as
"enduring freedom" or "just cause" can also be considered slogans,
devised to influence people.
 Transfer
 Also known as Association, this is a technique of projecting positive or
negative qualities (praise or blame) of a person, entity, object, or value (an
individual, group, organization, nation, patriotism, etc.) to another to make
the second more acceptable or to discredit it. It evokes an emotional
response, which stimulates the target to identify with recognized authorities.
Often highly visual, this technique often utilizes symbols (for example, the
Swastika used in Nazi Germany, originally a symbol for health and prosperity)
superimposed over other visual images. An example of common use of this
technique in America is for the President's image to be overlaid with a
swastika by his opponents.
 Unstated assumption
 This technique is used when the propaganda concept
that the propagandist intends to transmit would seem less
credible if explicitly stated. The concept is instead
repeatedly assumed or implied.
 Virtue words
 These are words in the value system of the target
audience that produce a positive image when attached to
a person or issue. Peace, happiness, security, wise
leadership, freedom, "The Truth", etc. are virtue words. In
countries such as the U.S. religiosity is seen as a virtue,
making associations to this quality effectively beneficial.
See ""Transfer"".
 Success for YOU…

…in the new global and diverse

workplace requires
excellent communication skills!