ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF

THERMAL POWER STATION

Components of a Typical Power Plant
 Reheat

Reheat Effect of reheating on TS diagram

Reheat Cycle
Typical 210 MW Steam Turbine, Steam & Water Cycle
Regenerative Feed Water Heating

Regenerative Feedwater Heating

Some Useful Definitions in Indian Context

Auxiliary Energy Consumption in relation to a period means the quantum of energy consumed by
auxiliary equipment of the generating station and transformer losses within the generating station, and
shall be expressed as a percentage of the sum of gross energy generated at the generator terminals of all
the units of the generating station;

Financial Year – Financial year means the year beginning on the 1st day of April and ending on the 31st
March following;

Gross Heat Rate or ‘GHR’ means the heat energy input in kCal required to generate one kWh of electrical
energy at generator terminals;

Net Heat Rate or NHR – The heat energy in kCal, input to a Generating Station to deliver one kWh at the
switchyard.

Plant Load Factor or 'PLF' = Energy generated during the period (MWh)
100
Total capacity (MW) x total hours in the period
 Performance Terms and Definitions
Gross heat rate (Qe ), kCal/kWh
Fuel consumptio n, kg  GCV of fuel, kCal/kg

Generator output, kWh
Net heat rate refers to the heat rate after deducting the auxiliary power consumption

Net heat rate (Qe ), kCal/kWh

Gross heat rate, kCal / kWh

1  (% auxiliary power consumption / 100)

Generator output, kW
Overall efficiency , %   100
Mass flow rate of fuel, kg/s  Gross calorific value, kJ/kg
Or
860
Overall efficiency , %  100
Gross heat rate, kCal/kWh

Total fuel consumptio n, kg

Specific fuel consumptio n, kg/kWh 
Gross generation , kWh
Major Area/Equipment in Thermal Power Plant
The major areas for conducting performance test in thermal power plants
are:
•Fuel handling system and preparation (E.g.: Coal handling system and
coal mills)
•Boilers and its associated parts
•Turbines and its associated parts
•Draft system /Fans (ID fans, FD fans, PA fans and other fans.)
•Condensers
•Water pumping systems (Boiler feed water pumping system, Condensate
extraction pumping system, DM water pumping system, Make up water
pumping, Raw water pumping system, etc).
 Typical auxiliary power consumption in power plant

Equipment
500 MW 210 MW 110 MW
Ref.
% Gen % APC % Gen % APC % Gen % APC
BFP 0.00* 0.00* 2.70 33.60 2.94 24.50
CEP 0.40 5.70 0.27 3.34 0.36 3.00
CWP 1.00 14.20 0.66 8.31 1.26 10.50
IDF 1.30 18.70 1.26 15.80 1.71 14.23
PAF 0.60 8.50 0.68 6.50 1.78 14.46
FDF 0.30 4.10 0.40 5.00 0.26 2.13
Mills 0.60 8.20 0.58 7.23 0.83 6.92
CT fans 0.23 3.20 0.32 3.54 0.48 4.00
Air Comp. 0.08 1.20 0.12 1.56 0.24 2.00
A/C Plant 0.04 0.50 0.08 0.94 0.11 0.92
CHP 0.12 1.70 0.14 1.70 0.29 2.41
AHP 0.09 1.20 0.13 1.66 0.31 2.54
Lighting 0.06 0.80 0.08 1.00 0.08 0.68
others 2.23 31.90 0.60 7.44 1.36 11.32
APC 7.00 100.00 8.00 100.00 12.00 100.00
 Coal Handling Plant
 Energy consuming equipments.
Crushers
Conveyors
Feeders
Tipplers

 The major objectives of coal handling plant energy audit are

• To evaluate specific energy consumption of the CHP equipments (kWh/ton of
coal)
• To evaluate percentage power consumption of CHP with respect to total
auxiliary power consumption
• To analyse the crushed coal size and rejects

 Performance of Crushers
 Observe and compare the operation of crushers and their throughput, hours of
operation, specific power consumption, etc
 Carryout the size analysis and compare with the design or optimum values
 If significant proportion of coal >20 mm size is observed on the downstream of
crusher, it may lead to substantial increase in power consumption of coal mills.
 Typical specific energy consumption of the CHP

Rated capacity Measured SEC

Coal
Equipment
Motor kW Coal TPH Motor kW processed kWh/ Ton
TPH
Conveyor 280 1400 144 1134 0.127
Crusher 597 875 253 567 0.446
Conveyor 500 1400 172.4 1362 0.126
Grizzly
45 875 16.9 620 0.027
Feeder
Paddle Feeder 37 875 17.2 620 0.027
Etc.

Total 1.2

Auxilliary power consumption of CHP

Parameter Unit Value
Total auxiliary power consumption of the
MU
station in a period
Total power consumption by the CHP plant in
MU
the same period
% Power consumption of CHP with respect to
%
total auxiliary power consumption
 Coal Mills
The major objectives of coal mill energy audit are
• To evaluate specific energy consumption of the mills. (kWh/ton of coal)
• To establish air to coal ratio of the mills (ton of air per ton of coal)
• To perform heat balance of the mills
• To analyse the coal fineness and mill rejects
Performance measurements
• Carry out power measurements of mills, PA fans, seal air fans, etc,. In the absence of
energy meters, take readings from on-line panel instruments for current, voltage,
power factor etc. For LT equipment, portable instrument can be used for power
measurements.
• Coal flow to be established by dirty Pitot tube test (to be carried out on Pulverised
coal lines). This also helps to identify unbalancing/choking is occurring in flow in the
Pulverised Coal lines. The on line coal flow values if available, may also to be taken
by appropriate coal feeder calibration.
• Airflow to be established per PA fan by clean air Pitot tube method
 Air flow rate , kg / hr
Air to coal ratio of the mill 
Coal flow rate, kg / hr

Electricit y consumption, kW
Specific energy consumption of the mill 
Coal flow rate, TPH
Analysis of mill fineness and mill rejects

 Mill rejects are an indication of mill performance.

 The variation in mill rejects (among the mills) could be due to variation
in performance of mill due to mill internal status, fuel handling, etc.

Mill rejects reporting

Fuel input, Mill reject Calorific value of

Mill No Fuel Reject, TPH Remarks
TPH % the reject

Mill No #
 Boiler

Schematic diagram of a utility boiler

 Typical boiler specifications for a 210 MW unit

Details at Continuous
Particulars Unit
Rating (NCR)

Type Water tube single drum

Capacity TPH 627.32

Main Steam pressure kg/cm2 155
Main Steam temperature 0C 540
Boiler efficiency % 87.16
Super heater outlet flow TPH 627.32
Reheater outlet flow TPH 565.6
GCV of coal kCal/kg 4350
Coal consumption TPH 106.2
Total combustion air TPH 822
Reheater outlet temperature 0C 540
Water-economizer inlet temperature 0C 241
Water-economizer outlet temperature 0C 280
Oxygen content at economizer outlet % 4.23
Performance evaluation of economizer and air preheater

Heat Exchanger Effectiveness

UNIT Design
Operating Parameters``
Generation MW 210
Primary Air flow through APH TPH 110
FW flow to economiser TPH 609
Gas temp at economiser in oC 473
Gas temp at economiser out oC 379
F W temp at economiser in oC 244
F W temp at economiser out oC 274
Gas temp at APH out oC 146
Gas temp at APH in oC 379
Primary air temp at APH in oC 35
Primary air temp at APH out oC 354
 Draft System

 Performance evaluation of fans

Energy Conservation options include
Replacement of fans
Impeller replacement
Variable speed drive application, etc
 Study of air infiltration into the draft system
air infiltration in to the system have to be performed periodically by
monitoring oxygen content at the following sections:
Before and after air preheater
Before and after ESP
Before and after ID fan
Reduction in air infiltration will result in
• Reduced power consumption of ID fans
• Reduced boiler losses
• Improvement in boiler loading
• Increased unit load
• Increased capacity margins in ID fan
 Water Pumping System

 major pumps in thermal power plant are Boiler feed water pumps,
Condensate extraction pumps, cooling tower pumps, raw water pumps,
ash slurry pumps etc.
 BFP may constitute more than 20% of the total auxiliary power
consumption.
 The measures could include
Replacement of pumps
Impeller replacement/trimming
Variable speed drive application
Optimizing number of pumps in operation, etc
 LP and HP Heaters
 performance of the feed water heaters
Terminal Temperature Difference (TTD)
Drain Cooler Approach (DCA)

Temperature profile for a feed water heater

 Turbine

The steam turbines are split into three separate stages,

 High Pressure (HP),
 Intermediate Pressure (IP) and
 Low Pressure (LP) stage

 Performance measurements
The temperature, pressure and flow measurements for the following are necessary
• Feed water at Inlet & Outlet of Heaters
• Main steam
• HP turbine extraction
• Hot reheat steam, Cold reheat Steam
• IP extraction
• IP Exhaust
In addition to the above, the generator output is to be noted
Parameter Reference UNIT LP Heater
Extraction steam pressure kg/cm2 (a) 0.614
Extraction steam temperature OC 86.5
Shell steam pressure kg/cm2 (a) 0.488
Shell steam temperature OC 86.5
Saturated temperature of steam @
shell pressure OC 86.5
Inlet feedwater temperature OC 47
Outlet feedwater temperature OC 77.5
Drain outlet temperature OC 61.8
Turbine cycle efficiency (thermal efficiency)

860
Turbine cycle efficiency , %   100
Turbine heat rate

Turbine stage (isentropic) efficiency

Actual enthalphy drop

Turbine stage (isentropi c) Efficiency , %  100
Isentropic enthalphy drop across the turbine
 Condenser
Parameter Unit Values
Unit load MW 215
Back pressure kg/cm2 (g) 0.949
Cond. CW inlet temp 0C 29.9
0C
Cond. CW out-let temp 41.7
0C
Steam saturation temp 44.6
LPT steam flow MT 530
Enthalpy of steam at vacuum kCal/kg 574
Condenser CW flow m3/hr 24492
• The pressure drop across the governor control valve is 100 psi.
• This sort of pressure drop is called an isoenthalpic and irreversible expansion,
• Meaning that the ability of the steam to do work has been reduced.
• As the steam passes through the governor, a substantial amount of its pressure
is lost, because of friction in the governor valve.

• The 300-psig steam next passes through the steam nozzle. This is an ordinary
nozzle.
• The nozzle is shaped to efficiently convert the pressure of the 300-psig steam to
velocity.
• The pressure of the steam, as soon as it escapes from the steam nozzle, is
already the same as the exhaust steam pressure (100 psig).
• This is called an isoentropic or reversible expansion.
 Horsepower Valves

It is the velocity of the steam impacting on the

turbine wheel buckets that causes the turbine
to spin. If that is so, then the way to extract
more work from each pound of steam is to
increase the velocity of the steam as it
escapes from the steam nozzle
STEAM TURBINE AND THROTTLING OF
PUMPS
COGENERATION
Need for cogeneration
Principle of Cogeneration
Through separate heat and power route
primary energy input in power plant will be 60 units
(24/0.40)
If a separate boiler is used for steam generation then the
fuel input to boiler will be 40 units (34/0.85).

If the plant had cogeneration then the fuel input will be only
68 units (24+34)/0.85 to meet both electrical and thermal
energy requirements

It can be observed that the losses, which were 42 units in

the case of, separate heat and power has reduced to 10
units in cogeneration mode

Along with the saving of fossil fuels, cogeneration also

allows to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases
(particularly CO2 emission). The production of electricity
being on-site, the burden on the utility network is reduced
and the transmission line losses eliminated
Technical Options for Cogeneration

• Cogeneration technologies that have been widely commercialized

include
• extraction/back pressure steam turbines
• gas turbine with heat recovery boiler (with or without bottoming steam
turbine)
• reciprocating engines with heat recovery boiler
Steam turbine cogeneration systems
Steam turbine cogeneration features

• The choice between backpressure turbine and extraction-condensing turbine depends mainly on
the quantities of power and heat, quality of heat, and economic factors
• option for using a wide variety of conventional as well as alternative fuels such as coal, natural
gas, fuel oil and biomass
• power generation efficiency of the cycle may be sacrificed to some extent in order to optimize
heat supply
• In backpressure cogeneration plants, there is no need for large cooling towers
• Steam turbines are mostly used where the demand for electricity is greater than one MW up to a
few hundreds of MW
• Due to the system inertia, their operation is not suitable for sites with intermittent energy
demand
Gas turbine cogeneration systems
Gas turbine cogeneration features

• natural gas is most commonly used; other fuels such as light fuel oil or diesel can also be
employed
• The typical range of gas turbines varies from a fraction of a MW to around 100 MW
• the gestation period for developing a project is shorter and the equipment can be delivered in a
modular manner
• Gas turbine has a short start-up time and provides the flexibility of intermittent operation
• If the heat output is less than that required by the user, it is possible to have supplementary
natural gas firing
• if more power is required at the site, it is possible to adopt a combined cycle that is a combination
of gas turbine and steam turbine cogeneration
Reciprocating engine cogeneration systems
Reciprocating engine cogeneration features

• high power generation efficiencies in comparison with other prime movers

• There are two sources of heat for recovery: exhaust gas at high temperature
and engine jacket cooling water system at low temperature
• more popular with smaller energy consuming facilities, particularly those having
a greater need for electricity than thermal energy
• diesel has been the most common fuel in the past, the prime movers can also
operate with heavy fuel oil or natural gas
• ideal for intermittent operation and their performance is not as sensitive to the
changes in ambient temperatures as the gas turbines
• Though the initial investment on these machines is low, their operating and
maintenance costs are high due to high wear and tear
Classification of Cogeneration Systems

• A cogeneration system can be classified as either a topping or a

bottoming cycle on the basis of the sequence of energy use
• In a topping cycle, the fuel supplied is used to first produce power
and then thermal energy, which is the by-product of the cycle and
is used to satisfy process heat or other thermal requirements
• In a bottoming cycle, the primary fuel produces high temperature
thermal energy and the heat rejected from the process is used to
generate power through a recovery boiler and a turbine generator
Combined-cycle topping system
Steam-turbine topping system
Diesel engine topping cycle
Gas-turbine topping system
Bottoming Cycle
 Performance Terms and Definitions
Overall Plant Performance
Fuel consumption , kg / hr or Sm 3 / hr
Overall plant fuel rate, kg / kWh (or ) Sm / kWh 
3

Power output, kW
Electrical output,Q  Thermal ouput , Q
Energy Utilisatio n Factor, EUF  e th
Fuel heat input, Q
f

Steam Turbine Performance

Turbine stage (isentropi c) efficiency,%
Actual enthalpy drop across the turbine, kCal/kg
  100
Stage (Isentropic) enthalpy drop across the turbine, kCal/kg
Overall plant heat rate, kCal/kWh
 Overall plant fuel rate, kg / kWh  GCV of fuel, kCal / kg

Gas Turbine and Heat Recovery Steam Generator Performance

Overall plant heat rate, kCal/kWh

 Overall plant fuel rate, Sm 3 / kWh NCV of gas, kCal / Sm 3
Steam flow rate  Enthalpy of steam  Enthalpy of feed water   100
ηHRSG 
(Exhaust gas flow rate  I/L enthalpy)  (Auxiliary fuel  GCV)
Field Testing Procedure
Test Duration
• The test duration is site specific and in a continuous process industry, 8-hour test data should give reasonably reliable data. In case
of an industry with fluctuating electrical/steam load profile, a set of 24-hour data sampling to be taken for a representative period.

Measurements and Data Collection

The suggested instrumentation (online/ field instruments) for the performance measurement is as under:
• Steam flow measurement : Orifice flow meters
• Fuel flow measurements : Volumetric measurements / Mass flow meters
• Air flow / Flue gas flow : Venturi / Orifice flow meter / Ion gun / Pitot tubes
• Flue gas analysis : Zirconium Probe Oxygen analyser
• Unburnt analysis : Gravimetric analysis
• Temperature : Thermocouple
• Cooling water flow : Orifice flow meter / weir /channel flow/non-
contact flow meters
• Pressure : Bourdon Pressure Gauges
• Power : Trivector meter / Energy meter
• Condensate : Orifice flow meter
I. Thermal Energy:

Flow Pressure Temperature

1 Steam inlet to turbine   
Fuel input to Boiler /Gas
2  - -
turbine
3 Combustion air   
Extraction steam to process
4   
Back Pressure Steam to
5   
Process
6 Condensing steam   
7 Condensate from turbine  - 
8 Turbine bypass steam  - -
9 Flue gas to HRSG -  
10 Exit flue gas
II. Electrical Energy:
- - + composition
11 Cooling water to condenser   
•
• Total power generation for the trial period from individual turbines.
• Hourly average power generation
• Quantity of power import from utility ( Grid )
• Auxiliaries power consumption
Calculations for Steam Turbine Cogeneration System
Step 1:
Calculate the actual heat extraction in turbine at each stage,
• Steam Enthalpy at turbine inlet : H1 kCal / kg
• Steam Enthalpy at 1st extraction : H2 kCal / kg
• Steam Enthalpy at Condenser : H3* kCal / kg
• Heat extraction from inlet : H1 - H2 kCal / kg
to extraction
• Heat extraction from : H2 – H3 kCal Q
/ kg
1 H1

Extraction to condenser
Extraction

S
condensing
Turbine Power output
Boiler kW
H2
Q3 H3
Q2 H2-is H3-is
Extraction
Condenser

Process Flow Diagram for Cogeneration Plant

Step 2:
• From Mollier diagram (H- Diagram) estimate the theoretical heat extraction
for the conditions mentioned in Step 1. Towards this:

• Plot the turbine inlet condition point (H1) in the Mollier chart – corresponding
to steam pressure (P1) and temperature.
P1

• Since expansion in turbine is an adiabatic process, the entropy is constant.

Hence draw a vertical line from inlet point (parallel to y-axis) upto the H1
extraction pressure (P2). Read the corresponding enthalpy H2-is.
P2

• Plot the extraction condition point (H2) in the Mollier chart – corresponding to
steam pressure (P2) and temperature. H2
P3
H2-is

Enthalpy
• Draw a vertical line from extraction point (parallel to y-axis) upto the
condensing pressure (P3). Read the corresponding enthalpy H3-is.
H3

H3-is
• Compute the theoretical heat drop for different stages of expansion.
H2-is

Entropy
Example
Solution
1. The total power that could be generated by the turbine
• The amount of heat remaining after steam has been extracted for process 1, 2 and 3 is calculated as follows:
• Total enthalpy of steam = enthalpy of steam x total quantity of steam
• Therefore the steam enthalpy of the inlet and outlet streams of the turbine is

• Turbine inlet = 808 kCal per kg x 31,250 kg = 25,250,000 kCal/kg

• Outlet to process # 1 = 669 x 3,250 = 2,174,250 kCal/hr
• Outlet to process # 2 = 662 x 8,000 = 5,296,000 kCal/hr
• Outlet to process # 3 = 659 x 20,000 = 13,180,000 kCal/hr

• Total amount of heat remaining = Total enthalpy of steam at turbine inlet – Total enthalpy of
steam at outlets to processes
• = 25,250,000 – (2,174,250 + 5,296,000+ 13,180,000)=4,599,750 kCal/hr
• Total amount of power generated = (Total amount of heat remaining x Stage (isentropic) turbine efficiency x
mechanical efficiency x transmission efficiency x generator efficiency) / 860 kCal per kW
• = (4,599,750 x 0.842 x 0.95 x 0.95 x 0.95) / 860 kCal per kW
= 3861 kW = 3.86 MW
2. Additional power to be purchased from the grid
• Additional power required = Total power required - Total amount of power generated = 4.5 – 3.86 = 0.64 MW

3. Heat to power ratio of the cogeneration plant

• Heat for the process requirement = Total enthalpy of steam at outlets to processes / 860 kCal per kW
• = (2174250 + 5296000+ 13180000) / 860 = 24,000 kW = 24MW
• Heat to power ratio = Thermal energy / Electrical energy = MWth / Mwe = 24 MW / 3.86 MW = 6.22

4. Hourly fuel consumption rate

= =

Hourly steam flow rate  Enthalpy of steam - Enthalpy of feed water) 31250  808 - 60)
= 7.5 TPH
Boiler efficiency  GCV of fuel 0.78  4000  1000
5. Energy Utilisation Factor (EUF)

Pe  Q
EUF  th
• Pe = 3,861 x 860 = 33,20,460 kCal/hr Q
f
• Qth = 21,74,250 + 52,96,000+ 1,31,80,000=2,06,50,250 kCal/hr
• Qf = 7,500 x 4,000 = 3,00,00,000 kCal/hr

3320460  20650250
= 79.9
EUF % 
30000000
Example
Solution
 Example
Calculate the following performance parameters of the gas turbine, details of which
are given below
• Overall plant fuel rate Fuel Data
Fuel fired Natural gas
• Overall plant heat rate Fuel flow rate sm3/hour 1312
Lower heating value of NG kCal/sm3 9465
• Thermal efficiency of HRSG Auxiliary fuel for HRSG NIL
• Energy Utilisation Factor (EUF) Exhaust flue gas conditions
Flow kg/sec 14.32
Temperature 0C 548
Description Specific heat of flue gas kCal/kg oC 0.25
Parameter Unit Quantity Generator data
Test duration hours 4 Average power output kW 3994.5
Gas turbine data Power factor 0.875
Waste heat recovery boiler data
Gas turbine compressor inlet conditions 0C
0C Exhaust gas temp at inlet 542
Air temperature 37.0 Exhaust gas temp exit boiler 0C 131.4
Pressure kg/cm2 (g) 1.0332 Steam parameters at WHRB exit
Dry bulb temperature 0C 36.5 Flow MT/hour 9.145
Wet bulb temperature 0 C 28.0 Temperature 0C 195.5
Diff. Pressure - Inlet air Pressure kg/cm2 (g) 8.05
mmWC 35.8 Feed water inlet parameters
filter
Flow kg/hour 9605
Temperature at drum inlet 0C 105
Pressure kg/cm2 (g) 12.4
Enthalpy at drum inlet kCal/kg 105
Solution
1. Determination of overall plant fuel rate
• Fuel consumption = 1312 Sm3/hr
• Electrical power output = 3994.5 kW
• Overall plant fuel rate = 1312/3994.5 = 0.32844 Sm3/kWh
2. Overall plant heat rate

Overall plant heat rate, kCal/kWh

 Overall plant fuel rate, Sm 3 / kWh GCV of fuel, kCal / Sm 3
=0.32844 X 9465 = 3109 kCal/kWh
3. Thermal efficiency calculations for HRSG

Steam flow rate  enthalpy of steam  enthalpy of feed water  x 100

ηHRSG 
(Exhaust gas flow rate x I/L enthalpy)  (Auxiliary fuel  GCV)
= 75%
9145 x 678.4  105 x 100
η HRSG 
51561 x 0.25 x 542
4. Energy Utilisation Factor (EUF)

Pe  Qth (3994.5  860)  {9145  (678.4 105)}

EUF  EUF  =70%
Qf 1311.97  9465