LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF NTH

ORDER
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
MATH 132

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO

 LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF NTH ORDER

• STANDARD FORM OF NTH ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

• LINEAR INDEPENDENCE OF A SET OF FUNCTIONS
• DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS
• HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH CONSTANT
COEFFICIENT
• NON-HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERNETIAL EQUATION WITH CONSTANT
COEFFICIENTS
• METHOD OF UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS
• VARIATION OF PARAMETERS

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 STANDARD FORM OF NTH ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATION
𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑏0 𝑥 𝑛
+ 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛−1
+ ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑅(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

if 𝑅 𝑥 = 0 for all 𝑥
𝑑𝑛𝑦 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑏0 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥

• homogeneous linear differential equation

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 LINEAR INDEPENDENCE OF A SET OF FUNCTIONS
• If there exist a function 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , …, 𝑦𝑛 and 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , …, 𝑐𝑛 are constants not all zeros
such that

𝑐1 𝑦1 + 𝑐2 𝑦2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑦𝑛 = 0 1

• identically in some interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, then the functions 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , …, 𝑦𝑛 are said to be

linearly dependent.

• When no such solution exist, the functions are linearly independent

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 LINEAR INDEPENDENCE OF A SET OF FUNCTIONS

• Example 1: Determine whether the given equations are linearly dependent or

independent
• A) 𝑦1 = cos(𝑥)
• B) 𝑦2 = sin(2𝑥)
𝜋
• 𝑦3 = cos(2𝑥 + ).
3

• Example 2: Determine whether the given equations are linearly dependent or

independent in all values of x
• A) 𝑥, 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 , 2 − 3𝑥 𝑒 𝑥
• B) 𝑒 𝑥 , cos(𝑥), sin(𝑥)

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 LINEAR INDEPENDENCE OF A SET OF FUNCTIONS

• THE WRONSKIAN
if

𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑦3 … 𝑦𝑛
𝑦1 ′ 𝑦2 ′ 𝑦3 ′ … 𝑦𝑛 ′
𝑊 = 𝑦1 ′′ 𝑦2 ′′ 𝑦3 ′′ … 𝑦𝑛 ′′ ≠ 0 Wronskian
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑦1 𝑛 𝑦2 𝑛 𝑦3 𝑛 … 𝑦𝑛 𝑛

then, the functions 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , …, 𝑦𝑛 are linearly independent

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS

• if D denotes differentiation, then the differential equation

𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑏0 𝑥 𝑛
+ 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛−1
+ ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑅(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

can be written as
𝑏0 𝑥 𝐷 𝑛 + 𝑏1 𝑥 𝐷 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 𝐷 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑅(𝑥)

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS

• FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF OPERATION

Let A, B and C be any differential operators
• The commutative law of addition
• 𝐴+𝐵 =𝐵+𝐴
• The associative law of addition
• 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)
• The associative law of multiplication
• 𝐴𝐵 𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵𝐶)
• The distributive law of multiplication with respect to addition
• 𝐴 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶
Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT
 DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS

• FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF OPERATION

Let A, B and C be any differential operators
• The commutative law of multiplication (if the coefficients are constant)
• 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴
• If m and n are any two positive integers
• 𝐷 𝑚 𝐷 𝑛 = 𝐷 𝑚+𝑛

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS

• SOME PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS

Since for constant m and positive integral k
• 𝐷 𝑘 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑘 𝑒 𝑚𝑥
• Let 𝑓(𝐷) be a polynomial in D
• 𝑓 𝐷 = 𝑎0 𝐷 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝐷 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝐷 + 𝑎𝑛
• Then
• 𝑓 𝐷 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑚 𝑛 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑎1 𝑚 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑒 𝑚𝑥
• So
• 𝑓 𝐷 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 𝑓(𝑚)
Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT
 DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS

• SOME PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS

• Consider the operator (𝐷 − 𝑎)
• 𝐷 − 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑦 = 𝐷 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝐷𝑦
• And
• 𝐷 − 𝑎 2 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑦 = 𝐷 − 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝐷𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝐷 2 𝑦
• Therefore it will lead us to
• 𝐷 − 𝑎 𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝐷 𝑛 𝑦
• using the linearity of differential equation
• 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑓 𝐷 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝐷 − 𝑎)𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑦
Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT
 DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS

• Example: Find the solution for the differential equation

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
• 2 2 +5 − 12𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

• 𝐷 + 3 4𝑦 = 0
• 2𝐷 − 1 2 𝑦 = 0

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 HOMOGENOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATION WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
MATH 132

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO

 HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE AUXILIARY EQUATION: DISTINCT REAL ROOTS
• Consider the differential equation with constant coefficients
𝑑𝑛𝑦 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
• 𝑎0 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

• can be written in the form

• 𝑓 𝐷 𝑦=0 Auxiliary equation
• If “m” is any root of the algebraic equation 𝑓 𝑚 = 0, then
• 𝑓 𝐷 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = 0
• Which means that the solution of the equation is

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO

𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 ASCOT
 HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE AUXILIARY EQUATION: DISTINCT REAL ROOTS
• Example: Solve the equation
𝑑3𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
• A) − 4 2 + + 6𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

• B) 3𝐷 3 + 5𝐷 2 − 2𝐷 𝑦 = 0
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• C) − 4𝑥 = 0 with the condition that when 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 0, and =3
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE AUXILIARY EQUATION: REPEATED REAL ROOTS
• If
𝑓 𝐷 𝑦=0
• has “n” repeated roots, then
• 𝑓 𝐷 must have a factor 𝐷 − 𝑏 𝑛

• Therefore, the general solution will be

𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥𝑒 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑏𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑏𝑥

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE AUXILIARY EQUATION: REPEATED REAL ROOTS
• Example: Solve the equation
𝑑4𝑦 𝑑3𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
• A) + 2 3 + =0
𝑑𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

• B) 𝐷 4 − 7𝐷 3 + 18𝐷 2 − 20𝐷 + 8 𝑦 = 0

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE AUXILIARY EQUATION: CONJUGATE COMPLEX ROOTS
• If
𝑓 𝐷 𝑦=0
• which the auxiliary equation
𝑓 𝑚 = 0 has real coefficients
• with roots
𝑚1 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 and 𝑚2 = 𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏
• Then, the general solution will be
𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos(𝑏𝑥) + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin(𝑏𝑥)
Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT
 HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE AUXILIARY EQUATION: CONJUGATE COMPLEX ROOTS
Example: Solve the equation
• A) 𝐷 3 − 3𝐷 2 + 9𝐷 + 13 𝑦 = 0

• B) 𝐷 4 + 8𝐷 2 + 16 𝑦 = 0

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE AUXILIARY EQUATION: REPEATED COJUGATE COMPLEX ROOTS
• For
𝑓 𝐷 𝑦=0
• If the roots
𝑚1 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 and 𝑚2 = 𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏 occur “p” times
• Then, the general solution will be
𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑝−1 𝑥 𝑝−2 + 𝑐𝑝 𝑥 𝑝−1 cos 𝑏𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
+ 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑝−1 𝑥 𝑝−2 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑥 𝑝−1 sin(𝑏𝑥)

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE AUXILIARY EQUATION: REPEATED COJUGATE COMPLEX ROOTS
Example:
• Find the solution for
𝐷 4 + 18𝐷 2 + 81 𝑦 = 0

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• Exercises:
Find the general solution for the following homogeneous linear equations
• A) 𝐷 4 − 2𝐷 3 + 𝐷 2 𝑦 = 0
• B) 𝐷 4 − 81 𝑦 = 0
• C) 𝐷 5 + 8𝐷 3 + 16𝐷 𝑦 = 0
• D) 𝐷 5 + 9𝐷 3 𝑦 = 0
• E) 𝐷 6 − 4𝐷 4 + 4𝐷 2 𝑦 = 0

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

NONHOMOGENEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATION WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
MATH 132

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO

 NON-HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• The differential equation in standard form
𝑏0 𝑥 𝐷 𝑛 + 𝑏1 𝑥 𝐷 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 𝐷 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑅(𝑥)
• if 𝑅(𝑥) ≠ 0, then the differential equation is said to be nonhomogeneous.
• The general solution for nonhomogeneous differential equation will be
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝
• 𝑦𝑐 - complementary solution
• (determined from the solution of auxiliary equation using the left side of the
nonhomogeneous differential equation)
• 𝑦𝑝 - particular solution

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 NON-HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• METHODS OF DETERMINING THE PARTICULAR SOLUTION, 𝑦𝑝
• Method of Reduction of Order
• Method of Undetermined Coefficients
• Method of Variation of Parameters

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 NON-HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE METHOD OF REDUCTION OF ORDER
• Conditions:
• The roots of the auxiliary equation are all rea
• The order of derivative is not too large
• The functional operator ∅(𝐷) is expressible in the factored form
∅ 𝐷 = 𝑎0 𝐷 − 𝑟1 𝐷 − 𝑟2 … 𝐷 − 𝑟𝑛

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 NON-HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE METHOD OF REDUCTION OF ORDER
• Steps:
• Write the given equation in factored form based from the roots of the auxiliary
equation.
𝑎0 𝐷 − 𝑟1 𝐷 − 𝑟2 … 𝐷 − 𝑟𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
• Let
𝐷 − 𝑟2 𝐷 − 𝑟3 … 𝐷 − 𝑟𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑧 1
𝑎0 𝐷 − 𝑟1 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑧 = 𝑔(𝑥)

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 NON-HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE METHOD OF REDUCTION OF ORDER
• Steps:
• Substitute this back to equation 1
𝐷 − 𝑟3 𝐷 − 𝑟3 … 𝐷 − 𝑟𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) 2
• Let
𝐷 − 𝑟3 𝐷 − 𝑟4 … 𝐷 − 𝑟𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑣
𝐷 − 𝑟2 𝑣 = 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑣 = ℎ(𝑥)

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 NON-HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE METHOD OF REDUCTION OF ORDER
• Steps:
• Once more, substitute this back to equation 2 and repeat the process all over
until the last factor is reached.
𝐷 − 𝑟𝑛 𝑦 = ∅(𝑥)
• which will finally give the solution
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑝 = 𝐹(𝑥)

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 NON-HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE METHOD OF REDUCTION OF ORDER
• Example:
Find the general solution of
• A) 𝐷 2 − 4 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 3𝑒 𝑥
• B) 𝐷 3 − 2𝐷 2 + 𝐷 𝑦 = 𝑥

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 NON-HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE METHOD OF UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS
• It requires no integration but only differentiation
• It can only be applied to special types of the right hand function, f(x):
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐾𝑥 𝑝 𝑒 𝑞𝑥 𝑞 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 ≠ 0
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐾𝑥 𝑝 𝑒 𝑞𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝐾𝑥 𝑝 𝑒 𝑞𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑥
• where: p - is a positive integer or zero
b&q - real constants including zero
K - constant

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 NON-HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE METHOD OF UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS
• For
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐾𝑥 𝑝 𝑒 𝑞𝑥
with 𝑞 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0
𝑦𝑝 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑝 + 𝐵𝑥 𝑝−1 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑥 + 𝑀
with 𝑞 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛 = 0
𝑦𝑝 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑝 + 𝐵𝑥 𝑝−1 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑥 + 𝑀 𝑥 𝑟
with 𝑞≠0

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO

𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 𝑞𝑥 𝐴𝑥 𝑝 + 𝐵𝑥 𝑝−1 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑥 + 𝑀 𝑥 𝑟 ASCOT
 NON-HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE METHOD OF UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS
• For
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐾𝑥 𝑝 𝑒 𝑞𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝐾𝑥 𝑝 𝑒 𝑞𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑥

𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 𝑞𝑥 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑝 + 𝐵1 𝑥 𝑝−1 + ⋯ + 𝐿1 𝑥 + 𝑀1 𝑥 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑥
+𝑒 𝑞𝑥 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑝 + 𝐵2 𝑥 𝑝−1 + ⋯ + 𝐿2 𝑥 + 𝑀2 𝑥 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑥

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 NON-HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE METHOD OF UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS
Example: Find the solution of
• A) 𝐷 2 − 4 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 3𝑒 𝑥
• B) 𝐷 2 + 2𝐷 + 5 𝑦 = 3𝑒 −3𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 10

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 NON-HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE METHOD OF VARIATION OF PARAMETERS
• Developed by Lagrange (French mathematician)
• Applies to linear equation with either constant or variable coefficient.

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 NON-HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE METHOD OF VARIATION OF PARAMETERS
• Considering a second order ordinary differential equation
𝑎1 𝐷 2 + 𝑎2 𝐷 + 𝑎3 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
• the complimentary solution will be
𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑦1 + 𝑐2 𝑦2 1

• to solve for the particular solution, replace 𝑐1 & 𝑐2 in equation 1 by 𝑝 & 𝑞, so that
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑝𝑦1 + 𝑞𝑦2

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 NON-HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE METHOD OF VARIATION OF PARAMETERS
• Differentiate the particular solution with respect to p and q and equate to zero. Take it as
equation 1.
𝑓(𝑥)
• Differentiate equation 1 with respect to 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 , then, equate to . Take it as equation
𝑎
2. “a” is the coefficient of y”.
• Solve for the value of p’ and q’ by elimination and substitution. Integrate to solve for p and
q.
• Substitute the value of p and q in the particular equation, 𝑦𝑝
• Add 𝑦𝑐 and 𝑦𝑝 to determine the general solution for the ODE.

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT

 NON-HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
• THE METHOD OF VARIATION OF PARAMETERS
Example: Find the solution to the differential equation
• A) 𝑦" + 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
• B) 𝐷 2 − 4 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 3𝑒 𝑥
• C) 𝐷 3 − 2𝐷 2 + 𝐷 𝑦 = 𝑥
• D) 𝐷 3 − 𝐷 𝑦 = 4𝑒 −𝑥 + 3𝑒 2𝑥

Engr. CHRISTOPHER S. PALADIO ASCOT