Chapter 3

With Question/Answer Animations

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Chapter Summary
 Algorithms
 Example Algorithms
 Algorithmic Paradigms
 Growth of Functions
 Big-O and other Notation
 Complexity of Algorithms
Section 3.1
Section Summary
 Properties of Algorithms
 Algorithms for Searching and Sorting
 Greedy Algorithms
 Halting Problem
Problems and Algorithms
 In many domains there are key general problems that
ask for output with specific properties when given
valid input.
 The first step is to precisely state the problem, using
the appropriate structures to specify the input and the
desired output.
 We then solve the general problem by specifying the
steps of a procedure that takes a valid input and
produces the desired output. This procedure is called
an algorithm.
Algorithms Abu Ja’far Mohammed Ibin Musa Al-Khowarizmi
(780-850)
Definition: An algorithm is a finite set of precise
instructions for performing a computation or for solving a
problem.
Example: Describe an algorithm for finding the maximum
value in a finite sequence of integers.
Solution: Perform the following steps:
1. Set the temporary maximum equal to the first integer in the
sequence.
2. Compare the next integer in the sequence to the temporary
maximum.
 If it is larger than the temporary maximum, set the temporary
maximum equal to this integer.
3. Repeat the previous step if there are more integers. If not, stop.
4. When the algorithm terminates, the temporary maximum is the
largest integer in the sequence.
Specifying Algorithms
 Algorithms can be specified in different ways. Their steps can be
described in English or in pseudocode.
 Pseudocode is an intermediate step between an English language
description of the steps and a coding of these steps using a
programming language.
 The form of pseudocode we use is specified in Appendix 3. It uses
some of the structures found in popular languages such as C++ and
Java.
 Programmers can use the description of an algorithm in pseudocode to
construct a program in a particular language.
 Pseudocode helps us analyze the time required to solve a problem
using an algorithm, independent of the actual programming language
used to implement algorithm.
Properties of Algorithms
 Input: An algorithm has input values from a specified set.
 Output: From the input values, the algorithm produces the
output values from a specified set. The output values are
the solution.
 Correctness: An algorithm should produce the correct
output values for each set of input values.
 Finiteness: An algorithm should produce the output after a
finite number of steps for any input.
 Effectiveness: It must be possible to perform each step of
the algorithm correctly and in a finite amount of time.
 Generality: The algorithm should work for all problems of
the desired form.
Finding the Maximum Element in a
Finite Sequence
 The algorithm in pseudocode:

procedure max(a1, a2, …., an: integers)

max := a1
for i := 2 to n
if max < ai then max := ai
return max{max is the largest element}

 Does this algorithm have all the properties listed on

the previous slide?
Some Example Algorithm Problems
 Three classes of problems will be studied in this
section.
1. Searching Problems: finding the position of a
particular element in a list.
2. Sorting problems: putting the elements of a list into
increasing order.
3. Optimization Problems: determining the optimal value
(maximum or minimum) of a particular quantity over
all possible inputs.
Searching Problems
Definition: The general searching problem is to locate
an element x in the list of distinct elements a1,a2,...,an,
or determine that it is not in the list.
 The solution to a searching problem is the location of
the term in the list that equals x (that is, i is the solution
if x = ai) or 0 if x is not in the list.
 For example, a library might want to check to see if a
patron is on a list of those with overdue books before
allowing him/her to checkout another book.
 We will study two different searching algorithms; linear
search and binary search.
Linear Search Algorithm
 The linear search algorithm locates an item in a list by examining elements in
the sequence one at a time, starting at the beginning.
 First compare x with a1. If they are equal, return the position 1.
 If not, try a2. If x = a2, return the position 2.
 Keep going, and if no match is found when the entire list is scanned,
return 0.
procedure linear search(x:integer,
a1, a2, …,an: distinct integers)
i := 1
while (i ≤ n and x ≠ ai)
i := i + 1
if i ≤ n then location := i
else location := 0
return location{location is the subscript of the term that
equals x, or is 0 if x is not found}
Binary Search
 Assume the input is a list of items in increasing order.
 The algorithm begins by comparing the element to be found
with the middle element.
 If the middle element is lower, the search proceeds with the upper
half of the list.
 If it is not lower, the search proceeds with the lower half of the list
(through the middle position).
 Repeat this process until we have a list of size 1.
 If the element we are looking for is equal to the element in the list,
the position is returned.
 Otherwise, 0 is returned to indicate that the element was not
found.
 In Section 3.3, we show that the binary search algorithm is much
more efficient than linear search.
Binary Search
 Here is a description of the binary search algorithm in
pseudocode.

procedure binary search(x: integer, a1,a2,…, an: increasing integers)

i := 1 {i is the left endpoint of interval}
j := n {j is right endpoint of interval}
while i < j
m := ⌊(i + j)/2⌋
if x > am then i := m + 1
else j := m
if x = ai then location := i
else location := 0
return location{location is the subscript i of the term ai equal to x,
or 0 if x is not found}
Binary Search
Example: The steps taken by a binary search for 19 in the list:
1 2 3 5 6 7 8 10 12 13 15 16 18 19 20 22
1. The list has 16 elements, so the midpoint is 8. The value in the 8th position is 10. Since
19 > 10, further search is restricted to positions 9 through 16.
1 2 3 5 6 7 8 10 12 13 15 16 18 19 20 22
2. The midpoint of the list (positions 9 through 16) is now the 12th position with a value
of 16. Since 19 > 16, further search is restricted to the 13th position and above.
1 2 3 5 6 7 8 10 12 13 15 16 18 19 20 22
3. The midpoint of the current list is now the 14th position with a value of 19. Since
19 ≯ 19, further search is restricted to the portion from the 13th through the 14th
positions .
1 2 3 5 6 7 8 10 12 13 15 16 18 19 20 22
4. The midpoint of the current list is now the 13th position with a value of 18.
Since 19> 18, search is restricted to the portion from the 14th position through the
14th.
1 2 3 5 6 7 8 10 12 13 15 16 18 19 20 22
5. Now the list has a single element and the loop ends. Since 19=19, the location 14 is
returned.
Sorting
 To sort the elements of a list is to put them in increasing order
(numerical order, alphabetic, and so on).
 Sorting is an important problem because:
 A nontrivial percentage of all computing resources are devoted to
sorting different kinds of lists, especially applications involving large
databases of information that need to be presented in a particular order
(e.g., by customer, part number etc.).
 An amazing number of fundamentally different algorithms have been
invented for sorting. Their relative advantages and disadvantages have
been studied extensively.
 Sorting algorithms are useful to illustrate the basic notions of computer
science.
 A variety of sorting algorithms are studied in this book; binary,
insertion, bubble, selection, merge, quick, and tournament.
 In Section 3.3, we’ll study the amount of time required to sort a list
using the sorting algorithms covered in this section.
Bubble Sort
 Bubble sort makes multiple passes through a list. Every
pair of elements that are found to be out of order are
interchanged.

procedure bubblesort(a1,…,an: real numbers

with n ≥ 2)
for i := 1 to n− 1
for j := 1 to n − i
if aj >aj+1 then interchange aj and aj+1
{a1,…, an is now in increasing order}
Bubble Sort
Example: Show the steps of bubble sort with 3 2 4 1 5

 At the first pass the largest element has been put into the correct position
 At the end of the second pass, the 2nd largest element has been put into the correct
position.
 In each subsequent pass, an additional element is put in the correct position.
Insertion Sort
 Insertion sort begins with the 2nd element. It compares the 2nd element
with the 1st and puts it before the first if it is not larger.
procedure insertion sort
•Next the 3rd element is put into (a1,…,an:
the correct position among the real numbers with n ≥ 2)
first 3 elements. for j := 2 to n
•In each subsequent pass, the n+1st i := 1
element is put into its correct while aj > ai
position among the first n+1
i := i + 1
elements.
•Linear search is used to find the
m := aj
correct position. for k := 0 to j − i − 1
aj-k := aj-k-1
ai := m
{Now a1,…,an is in increasing order}
Insertion Sort
Example: Show all the steps of insertion sort with the
input: 3 2 4 1 5
i. 2 3 4 1 5 (first two positions are interchanged)
ii. 2 3 4 1 5 (third element remains in its position)
iii. 1 2 3 4 5 (fourth is placed at beginning)
iv. 1 2 3 4 5 (fifth element remains in its position)
Greedy Algorithms
 Optimization problems minimize or maximize some parameter over all possible
inputs.
 Among the many optimization problems we will study are:
 Finding a route between two cities with the smallest total mileage.
 Determining how to encode messages using the fewest possible bits.
 Finding the fiber links between network nodes using the least amount of fiber.
 Optimization problems can often be solved using a greedy algorithm, which
makes the “best” choice at each step. Making the “best choice” at each step does
not necessarily produce an optimal solution to the overall problem, but in
many instances, it does.
 After specifying what the “best choice” at each step is, we try to prove that this
approach always produces an optimal solution, or find a counterexample to
show that it does not.
 The greedy approach to solving problems is an example of an algorithmic
paradigm, which is a general approach for designing an algorithm. We return to
algorithmic paradigms in Section 3.3.
Greedy Algorithms: Making Change
Example: Design a greedy algorithm for making change (in U.S.
money) of n cents with the following coins: quarters (25 cents),
dimes (10 cents), nickels (5 cents), and pennies (1 cent) , using
the least total number of coins.
Idea: At each step choose the coin with the largest possible value
that does not exceed the amount of change left.
1. If n = 67 cents, first choose a quarter leaving 67−25 = 42 cents.
Then choose another quarter leaving 42 −25 = 17 cents
2. Then choose 1 dime, leaving 17 − 10 = 7 cents.
3. Choose 1 nickel, leaving 7 – 5 = 2 cents.
4. Choose a penny, leaving one cent. Choose another penny leaving 0
cents.
Greedy Change-Making Algorithm
Solution: Greedy change-making algorithm for n cents. The
algorithm works with any coin denominations c1, c2, …,cr .
procedure change(c1, c2, …, cr: values of coins, where c1> c2> … > cr ;
n: a positive integer)
for i := 1 to r
di := 0 [di counts the coins of denomination ci]
while n ≥ ci
di := di + 1 [add a coin of denomination ci]
n = n - ci
[di counts the coins ci]

 For the example of U.S. currency, we may have quarters, dimes,

nickels and pennies, with c1 = 25, c2 = 10, c3 = 5, and c4 = 1.
Proving Optimality for U.S. Coins
 Show that the change making algorithm for U.S. coins is optimal.
Lemma 1: If n is a positive integer, then n cents in change using
quarters, dimes, nickels, and pennies, using the fewest coins possible
has at most 2 dimes, 1 nickel, 4 pennies, and cannot have 2 dimes and
a nickel. The total amount of change in dimes, nickels, and pennies
must not exceed 24 cents.
Proof: By contradiction
 If we had 3 dimes, we could replace them with a quarter and a nickel.
 If we had 2 nickels, we could replace them with 1 dime.
 If we had 5 pennies, we could replace them with a nickel.
 If we had 2 dimes and 1 nickel, we could replace them with a quarter.
 The allowable combinations, have a maximum value of 24 cents; 2
dimes and 4 pennies.
Proving Optimality for U.S. Coins
Theorem: The greedy change-making algorithm for U.S.
coins produces change using the fewest coins possible.
Proof: By contradiction.
1. Assume there is a positive integer n such that change can be
made for n cents using quarters, dimes, nickels, and
pennies, with a fewer total number of coins than given by
the algorithm.
2. Then, q̍ ≤ q where q̍ is the number of quarters used in
this optimal way and q is the number of quarters in the
greedy algorithm’s solution. But this is not possible by
Lemma 1, since the value of the coins other than quarters
can not be greater than 24 cents.
3. Similarly, by Lemma 1, the two algorithms must have the
same number of dimes, nickels, and quarters.
Greedy Change-Making Algorithm
 Optimality depends on the denominations available.
 For U.S. coins, optimality still holds if we add half
dollar coins (50 cents) and dollar coins (100 cents).
 But if we allow only quarters (25 cents), dimes (10
cents), and pennies (1 cent), the algorithm no longer
produces the minimum number of coins.
 Consider the example of 31 cents. The optimal number
of coins is 4, i.e., 3 dimes and 1 penny. What does the
algorithm output?
Greedy Scheduling
Example: We have a group of proposed talks with start and end times.
Construct a greedy algorithm to schedule as many as possible in a
lecture hall, under the following assumptions:
 When a talk starts, it continues till the end.
 No two talks can occur at the same time.
 A talk can begin at the same time that another ends.
 Once we have selected some of the talks, we cannot add a talk which is
incompatible with those already selected because it overlaps at least
one of these previously selected talks.
 How should we make the “best choice” at each step of the algorithm?
That is, which talk do we pick ?
 The talk that starts earliest among those compatible with already chosen talks?
 The talk that is shortest among those already compatible?
 The talk that ends earliest among those compatible with already chosen talks?
Greedy Scheduling
 Picking the shortest talk doesn’t work.
Start: 8:00 AM

Start: 9:00 AM
Talk 1
Talk 2
Start: 9:45 AM

End :9:45 AM
End: 10:00 AM Talk 3

End: 11:00 AM

 Can you find a counterexample here?

 But picking the one that ends soonest does work. The
algorithm is specified on the next page.
Greedy Scheduling algorithm
Solution: At each step, choose the talks with the
earliest ending time among the talks compatible with
those selected.
procedure schedule(s1 ≤ s2 ≤ … ≤ sn : start times, e1 ≤ e2 ≤ … ≤ en :
end times)
sort talks by finish time and reorder so that e1 ≤ e2 ≤ … ≤ en
S := ∅
for j := 1 to n
if talk j is compatible with S then
S := S ∅∪{talk j}
return S [ S is the set of talks scheduled]

 Will be proven correct by induction in Chapter 5.

Halting Problem
Example: Can we develop a procedure that takes as
input a computer program along with its input and
determines whether the program will eventually halt
with that input.
 Solution: Proof by contradiction.
 Assume that there is such a procedure and call it
H(P,I). The procedure H(P,I) takes as input a program
P and the input I to P.
 H outputs “halt” if it is the case that P will stop when
run with input I.
 Otherwise, H outputs “loops forever.”
Halting Problem
 Since a program is a string of characters, we can call
H(P,P). Construct a procedure K(P), which works as
follows.
 If H(P,P) outputs “loops forever” then K(P) halts.
 If H(P,P) outputs “halt” then K(P) goes into an infinite
loop printing “ha” on each iteration.
Halting Problem
 Now we call K with K as input, i.e. K(K).
 If the output of H(K,K) is “loops forever” then K(K)
halts. A Contradiction.
 If the output of H(K,K) is “halts” then K(K) loops
forever. A Contradiction.
 Therefore, there can not be a procedure that can
decide whether or not an arbitrary program halts. The
halting problem is unsolvable.
Section 3.2
Section Summary Donald E. Knuth
 Big-O Notation (Born 1938)

 Big-O Estimates for Important Functions

 Big-Omega and Big-Theta Notation

Edmund Landau Paul Gustav Heinrich Bachmann

(1877-1938) (1837-1920)
The Growth of Functions
 In both computer science and in mathematics, there are many
times when we care about how fast a function grows.
 In computer science, we want to understand how quickly an
algorithm can solve a problem as the size of the input grows.
 We can compare the efficiency of two different algorithms for
solving the same problem.
 We can also determine whether it is practical to use a particular
algorithm as the input grows.
 We’ll study these questions in Section 3.3.
 Two of the areas of mathematics where questions about the
growth of functions are studied are:
 number theory (covered in Chapter 4)
 combinatorics (covered in Chapters 6 and 8)
Big-O Notation
Definition: Let f and g be functions from the set of
integers or the set of real numbers to the set of real
numbers. We say that f(x) is O(g(x)) if there are constants
C and k such that

whenever x > k. (illustration on next slide)

 This is read as “f(x) is big-O of g(x)” or “g asymptotically
dominates f.”
 The constants C and k are called witnesses to the
relationship f(x) is O(g(x)). Only one pair of witnesses is
needed.
Illustration of Big-O Notation
f(x) is O(g(x)
Some Important Points about Big-O
Notation
 If one pair of witnesses is found, then there are infinitely
many pairs. We can always make the k or the C larger and
still maintain the inequality .
 Any pair C ̍ and k̍ where C < C̍ and k < k ̍ is also a pair of
witnesses since whenever x > k̍ > k.
You may see “ f(x) = O(g(x))” instead of “ f(x) is O(g(x)).”
 But this is an abuse of the equals sign since the meaning is
that there is an inequality relating the values of f and g, for
sufficiently large values of x.
 It is ok to write f(x) ∊ O(g(x)), because O(g(x)) represents the
set of functions that are O(g(x)).
 Usually, we will drop the absolute value sign since we will
always deal with functions that take on positive values.
Using the Definition of Big-O Notation
Example: Show that is .
Solution: Since when x > 1, x < x2 and 1 < x2

 Can take C = 4 and k = 1 as witnesses to show that

(see graph on next slide)
 Alternatively, when x > 2, we have 2x ≤ x2 and 1 < x2.
Hence,
when x > 2.
 Can take C = 3 and k = 2 as witnesses instead.
Illustration of Big-O Notation
is
Big-O Notation
 Both and
are such that and .
We say that the two functions are of the same order. (More on this
later)

 If and h(x) is larger than g(x) for all positive real

numbers, then .

 Note that if for x > k and if

for all x, then if x > k. Hence, .

 For many applications, the goal is to select the function g(x) in O(g(x))
as small as possible (up to multiplication by a constant, of course).
Using the Definition of Big-O Notation
Example: Show that 7x2 is O(x3).
Solution: When x > 7, 7x2 < x3. Take C =1 and k = 7
as witnesses to establish that 7x2 is O(x3).
(Would C = 7 and k = 1 work?)
Example: Show that n2 is not O(n).
Solution: Suppose there are constants C and k for
which n2 ≤ Cn, whenever n > k. Then (by dividing
both sides of n2 ≤ Cn) by n, then n ≤ C must hold for
all n > k. A contradiction!
Big-O Estimates for Polynomials
Example: Let
where are real numbers with an ≠0.
Then f(x) is O(xn). Uses triangle inequality,
an exercise in Section 1.8.
n n-1
Proof: |f(x)| = |anx + an-1 x + ∙∙∙ + a1x + a0|1

Assuming x > 1 ≤ |an|xn + |an-1| xn-1 + ∙∙∙ + |a1|x1 + |a0|

= xn (|an| + |an-1| /x + ∙∙∙ + |a1|/xn-1 + |a0|/ xn)
≤ xn (|an| + |an-1| + ∙∙∙ + |a1|+ |a0|)
 Take C = |an| + |an-1| + ∙∙∙ + |a0| and k = 1. Then f(x) is O(xn).
 The leading term anxn of a polynomial dominates its
growth.
Big-O Estimates for some
Important Functions
Example: Use big-O notation to estimate the sum of
the first n positive integers.
Solution:

Example: Use big-O notation to estimate the factorial

function
Solution:

Continued →
Big-O Estimates for some
Important Functions
Example: Use big-O notation to estimate log n!
Solution: Given that (previous slide)
then .
Hence, log(n!) is O(n∙log(n)) taking C = 1 and k = 1.
Display of Growth of Functions

Note the difference in behavior of functions as n gets larger

Useful Big-O Estimates Involving
Logarithms, Powers, and Exponents
 If d > c > 1, then
nc is O(nd), but nd is not O(nc).
 If b > 1 and c and d are positive, then
(logb n)c is O(nd), but nd is not O((logb n)c).
 If b > 1 and d is positive, then
nd is O(bn), but bn is not O(nd).
 If c > b > 1, then
bn is O(cn), but cn is not O(bn).
Combinations of Functions
 If f1 (x) is O(g1(x)) and f2 (x) is O(g2(x)) then
( f1 + f2 )(x) is O(max(|g1(x) |,|g2(x) |)).

 See next slide for proof

 If f1 (x) and f2 (x) are both O(g(x)) then

( f1 + f2 )(x) is O(g(x)).
 See text for argument
 If f1 (x) is O(g1(x)) and f2 (x) is O(g2(x)) then
( f1 f2 )(x) is O(g1(x)g2(x)).
 See text for argument
Combinations of Functions
 If f1 (x) is O(g1(x)) and f2 (x) is O(g2(x)) then
( f1 + f2 )(x) is O(max(|g1(x) |,|g2(x) |)).

 By the definition of big-O notation, there are constants C1,C2 ,k1,k2 such that
| f1 (x) ≤ C1|g1(x) | when x > k1 and f2 (x) ≤ C2|g2(x) | when x > k2 .
 |( f1 + f2 )(x)| = |f1(x) + f2(x)|
≤ |f1 (x)| + |f2 (x)| by the triangle inequality |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|
 |f1 (x)| + |f2 (x)| ≤ C1|g1(x) | + C2|g2(x) |
≤ C1|g(x) | + C2|g(x) | where g(x) = max(|g1(x)|,|g2(x)|)
= (C1 + C2) |g(x)|
= C|g(x)| where C = C1 + C2
 Therefore |( f1 + f2 )(x)| ≤ C|g(x)| whenever x > k, where k = max(k1,k2).
Ordering Functions by Order of Growth
 Put the functions below in order so that each function is
big-O of the next function on the list.
 f1(n) = (1.5)n We solve this exercise by successively finding the function that
grows slowest among all those left on the list.
 f2(n) = 8n +17n +111
3 2
• f (n) = 10000 (constant, does not increase with n)
 f3(n) = (log n ) 2 9

•f (n) = log (log n) (grows slowest of all the others)

 f4(n) = 2 n 5

•f (n) = (log n )3
2
(grows next slowest)
 f5(n) = log (log n)
•f (n) = n (log n) (next largest, (log n) factor smaller than any power of n)
6
2 3 3

 f6(n) = n (log n)
2 3
•f (n) = 8n +17n +111 (tied with the one below)
2
3 2

 n
f7(n) = 2 (n +1)
2
•f (n) = n + n(log n)
8
3 2
(tied with the one above)

 f8(n) = n3+ n(log n)2 •f (n) = (1.5) 1

n
(next largest, an exponential function)

 f9(n) = 10000 •f (n) = 2 n

(grows faster than one above since 2 > 1.5)
4

 f10(n) = n! •f (n) = 2 (n +1) (grows faster than above because of the n +1 factor)
7
n 2 2

•f10(n) = n! ( n! grows faster than cn for every c)

Big-Omega Notation
Definition: Let f and g be functions from the set of
integers or the set of real numbers to the set of real
numbers. We say that
if there are constants C and k such that Ω is the upper case
when x > k. version of the lower
case Greek letter ω.
 We say that “f(x) is big-Omega of g(x).”
 Big-O gives an upper bound on the growth of a function,
while Big-Omega gives a lower bound. Big-Omega tells us
that a function grows at least as fast as another.
 f(x) is Ω(g(x)) if and only if g(x) is O(f(x)). This follows
from the definitions. See the text for details.
Big-Omega Notation
Example: Show that is
where .
Solution: for all
positive real numbers x.
 Is it also the case that is ?
 Θ is the upper case
Big-Theta Notation version of the lower
case Greek letter θ.
 Definition: Let f and g be functions from the set of
integers or the set of real numbers to the set of real
numbers. The function if
and .

 We say that “f is big-Theta of g(x)” and also that “f(x) is of

order g(x)” and also that “f(x) and g(x) are of the same
order.”
 if and only if there exists constants C1 , C2
and k such that C1g(x) < f(x) < C2 g(x) if x > k. This follows
from the definitions of big-O and big-Omega.
Big Theta Notation
Example: Show that the sum of the first n positive integers
is Θ(n2).
Solution: Let f(n) = 1 + 2 + ∙∙∙ + n.
 We have already shown that f(n) is O(n2).
 To show that f(n) is Ω(n2), we need a positive constant C
such that f(n) > Cn2 for sufficiently large n. Summing only
the terms greater than n/2 we obtain the inequality
1 + 2 + ∙∙∙ + n ≥ ⌈ n/2⌉ + (⌈ n/2⌉ + 1) + ∙∙∙ + n
≥ ⌈ n/2⌉ + ⌈ n/2⌉ + ∙∙∙ + ⌈ n/2⌉
= (n − ⌈ n/2⌉ + 1 ) ⌈ n/2⌉
≥ (n/2)(n/2) = n2/4
 Taking C = ¼, f(n) > Cn2 for all positive integers n. Hence,
f(n) is Ω(n2), and we can conclude that f(n) is Θ(n2).
Big-Theta Notation
Example: Sh0w that f(x) = 3x2 + 8x log x is Θ(x2).
Solution:
 3x2 + 8x log x ≤ 11x2 for x > 1,
since 0 ≤ 8x log x ≤ 8x2 .
 Hence, 3x2 + 8x log x is O(x2).

 x2 is clearly O(3x2 + 8x log x)

 Hence, 3x2 + 8x log x is Θ(x2).
Big-Theta Notation
 When it must also be the case that

 Note that if and only if it is the case

that and .
 Sometimes writers are careless and write as if big-O
notation has the same meaning as big-Theta.
Big-Theta Estimates for
Polynomials
Theorem: Let
where are real numbers with an ≠0.
Then f(x) is of order xn (or Θ(xn)).
(The proof is an exercise.)
Example:
The polynomial is order of x5 (or
Θ(x5)).
The polynomial
is order of x199 (or Θ(x199) ).
Section 3.3
Section Summary
 Time Complexity
 Worst-Case Complexity
 Algorithmic Paradigms
 Understanding the Complexity of Algorithms
The Complexity of Algorithms
 Given an algorithm, how efficient is this algorithm for
solving a problem given input of a particular size? To
answer this question, we ask:
 How much time does this algorithm use to solve a problem?
 How much computer memory does this algorithm use to solve
a problem?
 When we analyze the time the algorithm uses to solve the
problem given input of a particular size, we are studying
the time complexity of the algorithm.
 When we analyze the computer memory the algorithm
uses to solve the problem given input of a particular size,
we are studying the space complexity of the algorithm.
The Complexity of Algorithms
 In this course, we focus on time complexity. The space
complexity of algorithms is studied in later courses.
 We will measure time complexity in terms of the number
of operations an algorithm uses and we will use big-O and
big-Theta notation to estimate the time complexity.
 We can use this analysis to see whether it is practical to use
this algorithm to solve problems with input of a particular
size. We can also compare the efficiency of different
algorithms for solving the same problem.
 We ignore implementation details (including the data
structures used and both the hardware and software
platforms) because it is extremely complicated to consider
them.
Time Complexity
 To analyze the time complexity of algorithms, we determine the
number of operations, such as comparisons and arithmetic
operations (addition, multiplication, etc.). We can estimate the
time a computer may actually use to solve a problem using the
amount of time required to do basic operations.
 We ignore minor details, such as the “house keeping” aspects of
the algorithm.
 We will focus on the worst-case time complexity of an algorithm.
This provides an upper bound on the number of operations an
algorithm uses to solve a problem with input of a particular size.
 It is usually much more difficult to determine the average case
time complexity of an algorithm. This is the average number of
operations an algorithm uses to solve a problem over all inputs of
a particular size.
Complexity Analysis of Algorithms
Example: Describe the time complexity of the algorithm
for finding the maximum element in a finite sequence.
procedure max(a1, a2, …., an: integers)
max := a1
for i := 2 to n
if max < ai then max := ai
return max{max is the largest element}

Solution: Count the number of comparisons.

• The max < ai comparison is made n − 1 times.
• Each time i is incremented, a test is made to see if i ≤ n.
• One last comparison determines that i > n.
• Exactly 2(n − 1) + 1 = 2n − 1 comparisons are made.

Hence, the time complexity of the algorithm is Θ(n).

Worst-Case Complexity of Linear Search
Example: Determine the time complexity of the linear
search algorithm. procedure linear search(x:integer,
a1, a2, …,an: distinct integers)
i := 1
while (i ≤ n and x ≠ ai)
i := i + 1
if i ≤ n then location := i
else location := 0
return location{location is the subscript of the term that equals x, or is 0 if
x is not found}

Solution: Count the number of comparisons.

• At each step two comparisons are made; i ≤ n and x ≠ ai .
• To end the loop, one comparison i ≤ n is made.
• After the loop, one more i ≤ n comparison is made.
If x = ai , 2i + 1 comparisons are used. If x is not on the list, 2n + 1
comparisons are made and then an additional comparison is used to
exit the loop. So, in the worst case 2n + 2 comparisons are made.
Hence, the complexity is Θ(n).
Average-Case Complexity of Linear Search
Example: Describe the average case performance of the
linear search algorithm. (Although usually it is very
difficult to determine average-case complexity, it is easy for
linear search.)
Solution: Assume the element is in the list and that the
possible positions are equally likely. By the argument on
the previous slide, if x = ai , the number of comparisons is
2i + 1.

Hence, the average-case complexity of linear search is Θ(n).

 Worst-Case Complexity of Binary Search
Example: Describe the time complexity of binary
search in terms of the number of comparisons used.
procedure binary search(x: integer, a1,a2,…, an: increasing integers)
i := 1 {i is the left endpoint of interval}
j := n {j is right endpoint of interval}
while i < j
m := ⌊(i + j)/2⌋
if x > am then i := m + 1
else j := m
if x = ai then location := i
else location := 0
return location{location is the subscript i of the term ai equal to x, or 0 if x is not found}

Solution: Assume (for simplicity) n = 2k elements. Note that k = log n.

• Two comparisons are made at each stage; i < j, and x > am .
• At the first iteration the size of the list is 2k and after the first iteration it is 2k-1. Then 2k-2
and so on until the size of the list is 21 = 2.
• At the last step, a comparison tells us that the size of the list is the size is 20 = 1 and the
element is compared with the single remaining element.
• Hence, at most 2k + 2 = 2 log n + 2 comparisons are made.
• Therefore, the time complexity is Θ (log n), better than linear search.
Worst-Case Complexity of Bubble Sort
Example: What is the worst-case complexity of bubble
sort in terms of the number of comparisons made?
procedure bubblesort(a1,…,an: real numbers
with n ≥ 2)
for i := 1 to n− 1
for j := 1 to n − i
if aj >aj+1 then interchange aj and aj+1
{a1,…, an is now in increasing order}
Solution: A sequence of n−1 passes is made through the list. On each pass n − i
comparisons are made.

The worst-case complexity of bubble sort is Θ(n2) since .

Worst-Case Complexity of Insertion
Sort
Example: What is the worst-case complexity of
insertion sort in terms of the number of comparisons
made? procedure insertion sort(a1,…,an:
real numbers with n ≥ 2)
Solution: The total number of for j := 2 to n
comparisons are: i := 1
while aj > ai
i := i + 1
m := aj
Therefore the complexity is Θ(n2). for k := 0 to j − i − 1
aj-k := aj-k-1
ai := m
Matrix Multiplication Algorithm
 The definition for matrix multiplication can be expressed
as an algorithm; C = A B where C is an m n matrix that is
the product of the m k matrix A and the k n matrix B.
 This algorithm carries out matrix multiplication based on
its definition.
procedure matrix multiplication(A,B: matrices)
for i := 1 to m
for j := 1 to n
cij := 0
for q := 1 to k
cij := cij + aiq bqj
return C{C = [cij] is the product of A and B}
Complexity of Matrix Multiplication
Example: How many additions of integers and
multiplications of integers are used by the matrix
multiplication algorithm to multiply two n n
matrices.
Solution: There are n2 entries in the product. Finding
each entry requires n multiplications and n − 1
additions. Hence, n3 multiplications and n2(n − 1)
additions are used.
Hence, the complexity of matrix multiplication is
O(n3).
Boolean Product Algorithm
 The definition of Boolean product of zero-one
matrices can also be converted to an algorithm.

procedure Boolean product(A,B: zero-one matrices)

for i := 1 to m
for j := 1 to n
cij := 0
for q := 1 to k
cij := cij ∨ (aiq ∧ bqj)
return C{C = [cij] is the Boolean product of A and B}
Complexity of Boolean Product
Algorithm
Example: How many bit operations are used to find
A ⊙ B, where A and B are n n zero-one matrices?
Solution: There are n2 entries in the A ⊙ B. A total of
n Ors and n ANDs are used to find each entry. Hence,
each entry takes 2n bit operations. A total of 2n3
operations are used.
Therefore the complexity is O(n3)
Matrix-Chain Multiplication
 How should the matrix-chain A1A2∙ ∙ ∙An be computed using the
fewest multiplications of integers, where A1 , A2 , ∙ ∙ ∙ , An are m1 m2,
m2 m3 , ∙ ∙ ∙ mn mn+1 integer matrices. Matrix multiplication
is associative (exercise in Section 2.6).
Example: In which order should the integer matrices A1A2A3 - where A1
is 30 20 , A2 20 40, A3 40 10 - be multiplied to use the least number
of multiplications.
Solution: There are two possible ways to compute A1A2A3.
 A1(A2A3): A2A3 takes 20 ∙ 40 ∙ 10 = 8000 multiplications. Then
multiplying A1 by the 20 10 matrix A2A3 takes 30 ∙ 20 ∙ 10 = 6000
multiplications. So the total number is 8000 + 6000 = 14,000.
 (A1A2)A3: A1A2 takes 30 ∙ 20 ∙ 40 = 24,000 multiplications. Then
multiplying the 30 40 matrix A1A2 by A3 takes 30 ∙ 40 ∙ 10 = 12,000
multiplications. So the total number is 24,000 + 12,000 = 36,000.
So the first method is best. An efficient algorithm for finding the best order for matrix-chain
multiplication can be based on the algorithmic paradigm known as
dynamic programming. (see Ex. 57 in Section 8.1)
Algorithmic Paradigms
 An algorithmic paradigm is a a general approach
based on a particular concept for constructing
algorithms to solve a variety of problems.
 Greedy algorithms were introduced in Section 3.1.
 We discuss brute-force algorithms in this section.
 We will see divide-and-conquer algorithms (Chapter 8),
dynamic programming (Chapter 8), backtracking
(Chapter 11), and probabilistic algorithms (Chapter 7).
There are many other paradigms that you may see in
later courses.
Brute-Force Algorithms
 A brute-force algorithm is solved in the most
straightforward manner, without taking advantage of
any ideas that can make the algorithm more efficient.
 Brute-force algorithms we have previously seen are
sequential search, bubble sort, and insertion sort.
Computing the Closest Pair of
Points by Brute-Force
Example: Construct a brute-force algorithm for
finding the closest pair of points in a set of n points in
the plane and provide a worst-case estimate of the
number of arithmetic operations.
Solution: Recall that the distance between (xi,yi) and
(xj, yj) is . A brute-force algorithm
simply computes the distance between all pairs of
points and picks the pair with the smallest distance.
Note: There is no need to compute the square root, since the square of the
distance between two points is smallest when the distance is smallest.

Continued →
Computing the Closest Pair of
Points by Brute-Force
 Algorithm for finding the closest pair in a set of n points.
procedure closest pair((x1, y1), (x2, y2), … ,(xn, yn): xi, yi real numbers)
min = ∞
for i := 1 to n
for j := 1 to i
if (xj − xi)2 + (yj − yi)2 < min
then min := (xj − xi)2 + (yj − yi)2
closest pair := (xi, yi), (xj, yj)
return closest pair

 The algorithm loops through n(n −1)/2 pairs of points, computes the value
(xj − xi)2 + (yj − yi)2 and compares it with the minimum, etc. So, the algorithm
uses Θ(n2) arithmetic and comparison operations.
 We will develop an algorithm with O(log n) worst-case complexity in Section
8.3.
Understanding the Complexity of
Algorithms
Understanding the Complexity of
Algorithms

Times of more than 10100 years are indicated with an *.

Complexity of Problems
 Tractable Problem: There exists a polynomial time
algorithm to solve this problem. These problems are said to
belong to the Class P.
 Intractable Problem: There does not exist a polynomial
time algorithm to solve this problem
 Unsolvable Problem : No algorithm exists to solve this
problem, e.g., halting problem.
 Class NP: Solution can be checked in polynomial time. But
no polynomial time algorithm has been found for finding a
solution to problems in this class.
 NP Complete Class: If you find a polynomial time algorithm
for one member of the class, it can be used to solve all the
problems in the class.
P Versus NP Problem Stephen Cook
(Born 1939)

 The P versus NP problem asks whether the class P = NP? Are there problems
whose solutions can be checked in polynomial time, but can not be solved in
polynomial time?
 Note that just because no one has found a polynomial time algorithm is
different from showing that the problem can not be solved by a polynomial time
algorithm.
 If a polynomial time algorithm for any of the problems in the NP complete
class were found, then that algorithm could be used to obtain a polynomial
time algorithm for every problem in the NP complete class.
 Satisfiability (in Section 1.3) is an NP complete problem.
 It is generally believed that P≠NP since no one has been able to find a
polynomial time algorithm for any of the problems in the NP complete class.
 The problem of P versus NP remains one of the most famous unsolved
problems in mathematics (including theoretical computer science). The Clay
Mathematics Institute has offered a prize of $1,000,000 for a solution.