Digestion

Digestion
and
and
nutrition
nutrition
6.1
6.1your microbial
your organ
microbial
organ
Before 1980, physicians
thought that ulcers were
caused by stress or diet but
around 1982, Australian
physicians Robin Warren and
Barry Marshall first identified the link
between Helicobacter pylori
(H. pylori) and ulcers,
concluding that the
bacterium, not stress or
diet, causes ulcers
Helicobacter
pylori
 Can cause an infection in your
stomach that sometimes leads
to ulcers.
 Infection with H. pylori is
common.
 About two-thirds of the world’s
population has it in their bodies.
 For most people, it doesn’t
cause ulcers or any other
symptoms.
 If you do have problems, there
are medicines that can kill the
germs and help sores heal.
 It also can raise your risk
of stomach cancer.
6.1
6.1your your microbial
microbial organ
organ
Irritable bowel syndrome
(IBS) Caused by shift in diversity
and proportions of intestinal
bacteria
 A common disorder that affects
the large intestine.
 The exact cause of IBS is
unknown, but most experts think
that it's related to increased
sensitivity of the gut and
problems digesting food.
 Scientist feel that decline in
Bifidobacterium may be a factor
in irritable bowel syndrome
 6.2 ANIMAL
6.2 ANIMAL
DIGESTIVE
DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
SYSTEM
 Mechanically and chemically
reduces food to particles and
molecules small enough to be
absorb into the internal
environment

 Plays a fundamental role

in ensuring that all the
foods and liquids we
ingest are broken down into
useful nutrients and
chemicals
 6.2 ANIMAL
6.2 ANIMAL DIGESTIVE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
SYSTEM

Two types of Digestive system

Incomplete digestive system

Complete digestive system
 b. Sac
b. Sacor or
tubetube

Incomplete digestive system

 Has one opening for both food coming in and wastes going out
 Sac like digestive cavity
 Common among invertebrates
 Examples: flatworm, sea sponges and jellyfish

complete digestive system

 Has digestive tubes with two openings (a mouth and an anus)
 Common among nematodes, annelids, mollusks, echinoderms, and
vertebrates
 It performs five task
 Examples: Humans, Frogs, and Dogs
b. Sac b.
or
b. Sac
tube
Sac
b. Sac or tube or
or tube
tube

Mechanical processing and motility

Breaking up, mixing and transporting of
food material

Secretion
Release of needed enzymes and other
substance into the lumen

Digestion
Chemical breakdown of food matter to molecules
small enough to cross the gut lining
b.
b.Sac
Sacor tube
or tube
Absorption
The passage of digested nutrients into the
blood
and lymph

Elimination
The expulsion of undigested and unabsorbed
residues at the end of the gut
6.3 Overview of
the Human
Digestive
System
 Mouth
 Designated to break food into smaller pieces
and begin digestion via exposure to saliva
 It contains important structures that aid in
and begin the digestive process. These include
the teeth, the tongue, and the salivary glands
 Pharynx (throat)
 Shared structure that leads to the esophagus
 A five-inch long tube that starts near our
nose and ends at our windpipe.
 When food enters the pharynx, involuntary
muscle contractions close off the air
passageways.
 stomach
 Churns the food and exposes to gastric juices
 Acts as a blender, mixing the food with
digestive juices secreted by specialized cells
in the stomach lining.
 Small intestine
 An area of much digestion due to the accessory
structures
 The site where up to ninety percent of our
total nutrient and mineral absorption takes
place.
 It is further divided into three sections: the
duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum.
 Large intestine
 Serves to absorb water and remove wastes from
the body via the anus
 It is subdivided into four main regions: the
cecum, the colon, the rectum, and the anus.
 It is actually shorter than the
small intestine
Accessory organs
that contribute to
Digestion:
Salivary Glands – secrete saliva
which keeps the mouth and other
parts of the digestive system
moist.
Liver – Produces bile that
emulsifies fat
Gallbladder – Stores and
concentrates bile, releasing it
when it is needed by the small
 6.4
Chewing and
swallowing
 6.4 Chewing
6.4 Chewing and
and
swallowing
swallowing
 32 teeth interact with saliva
to mechanically and chemically
prepare food in the mouth
 Teeth – hardened jaw appendages
with enamel cover over dentin
and calcium with a pulpy matrix
 Enzyme in saliva begins process
of chemical digestion and
breaks starch into
disaccharides
 Presence of food at back of
throat triggers swallowing
reflex
6.5
Food storage
and Digestion
in the Stomach
6.5 Food storage and Digestion
in the Stomach
Stomach
 A muscular sac that stores and mixes food
 Secretes substances that dissolve
and degrade food
 Controls the rate at which food enters
the small intestine.
 Stomach wall rhythmically contracts
about three times a minute
 6.5 Food storage and Digestion
in the Stomach
Gastric fluid includes hydrochloric acid,
pepsinogens, and mucus.

 HCl - dissolves bits of food to form chym

and converts pepsinogen (inactive) to pepsin
(active).
 Pepsin - begins the digestion of proteins

Peristaltic contractions churn the chyme

and keep the sphincter of the stomach’s exit
closed, but small amounts are released at
regular intervals into the small intestine.
6.6
Structures of
the Small
Intestine
tructure of the small intestin
Duodenum –
 It receives partially digested food
from the stomach
 Plays a vital role in
the chemical digestion of chyme
Jejunum
 Most of the nutrients present in
food are absorbed here before
being passed on to the ileum
for further absorption.
Ileum
 Longest part of the small intestine
 mainly to absorb vitamin B12,
bile salts, and any products of
digestion that were not absorbed
by the jejunum.
INNERLINING OF THE
SMALL INTESTINE
 6.7
Digestion and
Absorption in
Small Intestine
 6.8
The Large Intestine
 A. Structure and Function
of the Large Intestine
 Stores and concentrates feces
 feces—undigested and unabsorbed material,
water,
and bacteria.
 Begins as a cup-shaped pouch at its junction
with the small intestine
 The main portion of the large intestine, the
colon,
contains E. coli bacteria that make vitamin B12.
 It is draped across the lower abdomen and ends
in a rectum (feces storage), which opens to the
outside through the anus.
 Waste materials travel from small 6.8
intestine
The Large Intestin
 b. disorders
Constipation
 Is a condition of the digestive system
characterized by hard feces that are
difficult to pass.
 Several factors, including stress and a
low-bulk diet, can delay defecation,
resulting in constipation.

Appendicitis
 An inflammation of the appendix
 A blockage in the lining of the appendix
that results in infection is the likely
cause of appendicitis
 Fecal material lodged in the appendix can
lead to the complications of appendicitis.
6.8 The Large Intestine
Colon Polyp
 A colon polyp is a small growth of tissue that
projects from
the lining of a section of the large intestine
known as
the colon.
 Some people are genetically predisposed to develop
colon polyps, which start as benign growths, but may
later become cancerous.

Colon Cancer
 It is the cancer of the large intestine (colon)
 It is highly curable when detected early enough.
 Diagnosis can come from a colonoscopy and a virtual
colonoscopy, which uses x-rays and a computer to
generate an image of the colon.
 The type of treatment the doctor recommends will
6.9 Metabolism of
Absorbed Organic
Compounds
 A. Nutrient molecules are shuffled and
reshuffled once
they have been absorbed.
1. All cells continually recycle some
carbohydrates,
lipids, and proteins by breaking apart.
Cells use the products as energy sources a
building blocks.
hen you eat, excess carbohydrates and other
c compounds are converted to fat for storage
adipose tissue or converted to glycogen in the
liver
and muscle tissue.
6.9 Metabolism of Absorbed Organic Compou
 C. Between meals, glucose levels are
maintained by breakdown of glycogen
reserves in the liver, and amino acids
are converted to glucose; adipose cells
degrade fats to glycerol and fatty
acids, all which enter the blood.
D. The liver stores, converts, and maintains
oncentrations of required organic compounds
blood; it inactivates most hormones, sending
them
dneys for excretion, and it removes worn-out
red blood cells and6.9detoxifies chemicals.
Metabolism of Absorbed Organic Compou
 6.10 Vitamins, Minerals, and
Phytochemicals
 Humans need small amounts of at least 13
organic molecules, called vitamins, to assist in
a cellular metabolism.

Supplementing vitamins A, C, and E

-may counter the effects of aging, protecting
the immune system by inactivating free radicals.
(suggested by some studies)
 6.10 Vitamins, Minerals, and
Phytochemicals
 Inorganic substances, called minerals (Ca, Mg,
K, Fe, for example) are also needed.

Balanced diet will normally meet all

requirements for these substances for people
who are in good health; excessive intake is at
least wasteful and at the worst harmful.

Phytochemicals- supplied by plants, are also

essential to reduce the risk of certain diseases.
 6.11 What Should You Eat
A. USDA (United States Department of Agriculture)
Dietary Recommendations
1. They recently issued a set of nutritional
guidelines to replace its earlier “food pyramid”,
based on extensive nutritional research.

2. Diet recommends lowering the intake of refined

grains, saturated fats, trans-fatty acids, and added
sugars or caloric sweeteners, and no more than one
teaspoon of salt daily.
 6.11 What Should You Eat

3. More fruits and vegetables with potassium

and fiber content are encouraged, with fat-free
or low-fat milk products and whole grains; 55%
of daily caloric intake is to come from
carbohydrates.
 6.11 What Should You Eat
B. Fruits, Vegetables, and Whole Grains
1. Complex carbohydrates provide the body
with glucose, fiber, and vitamins.
a. Soluble fiber present in many fruits and
vegetables helps move food through the
digestive tract.
b. Soluble fiber also helps lower cholesterol and
lower your heart disease risk.
 6.11 What Should You Eat
2. High processed carbohydrates such as refined
sugar and high fructose corn syrup are empty
calories since they have little nutritional value.

3. Approximately 1% of the population has

celiac disease, where the villa in the intestines is
inflamed due to ingestion of gluten.
a. A diet devoid of gluten solves the problem.
 6.11 What Should You Eat
C. Heart- Healthy Oils
1. Phospholipids and cholesterol are important
components of membranes; fats are energy
reserves and provide insulation and
cushioning.
2. The body needs polyunsaturated fat to
supply the essential fatty acids, those not
made by the body itself.
 6.11 What Should You Eat
a. Polyunsaturated fats include omega-3 fatty
acids and omega-6 fatty acids.
1. Omega-3 fatty acids can reduce
inflammation associated with cardiovascular
disease and arthritis.
2. These same fatty acids help to keep a
diabetic’s glucose level more consistent.
3. Oleic acid from olive oil can help prevent
heart disease.
 6.11 What Should You Eat
4. A diet that is laden with lots of meat and dairy
products could cause an increased incidence of
heart disease and cancer.

5. Trans fats have been shown to be even more

deleterious to one’s heart health.
 6.11 What Should You Eat
D. Lean Meat and Low-Fat Dairy

1. Of the 20 different amino acids in proteins, 8

are essential (that is, must supplied in the
diet).
2. Most proteins in animal tissues are complete;
their amino acid ratios match human
nutritional needs.
 6.11 What Should You Eat
• 3. Nearly all plant proteins are incomplete, in
that they lack one or more amino acids that
are essential for humans.

a. A vegetarian diet can supply all essential

nutrients if they are eaten in adequate
combinations.
 6. 12
Maintaining
A Healthy
Weight
A. What Is a Healthy Weight?
1. Body mass index (BMI)
 A person's weight in kilograms divided by the
square of height in meters.
 A ratio of weight and height, is a good way
to measure ideal or overweight conditions.
 It can be used to screen for weight
categories that may lead to health problems
but it is not diagnostic of the body fatness
or health of an individual.

A. Scores between 25 and 29.9 are considered

overweight; a score of 30 or more indicates
obesity.

6.12 Maintaining a Healthy

B. Why Is Obesity Unhealthy?
Obesity
 An overabundance of fat in adipose tissue that
may lead to health problems.
 Type II diabetes, heart disease, cancer, etc.
are only some of the potential health issues
associated with obesity.
 Obese individuals have additional
triglycerides in their fat cells, which
interferes with their functioning.
 These damaged cells encourage inflammation in
the body that can increase cancer risks or
interfere with the functioning of insulin.

6.12 Maintaining a Healthy

 C. Genetics of Obesity
Genetics of Obesity
 Genes may have an influence on whether or not we
gain
 A study of twins found that genetic differences
affected the response each set had to overfeedin
or
to losing weight.
 Scientists have discovered the ob gene, which
produces leptin, an appetite suppressor.
a. Experiments performed on mice show that thos
without the ob gene become obese.
b. Few individuals have a leptin deficiency.
 Another more common gene called flo has been
isolated
in humans and also leads to obesity.
6.12 Maintaining a Healthy
 D. Eating Too Little
1.Anorexia nervosa
Is a condition where an individual is not within 15
percent of their normal weight.
t may have a genetic basis, but is also largely due t
social pressures.
can have disastrous effects on bone and heart health

2.Bulimia nervosa
 Is a condition where an individual binges and then
purges by vomiting.
 This condition may damage both esophageal
cells and teeth.
It can also lead to an improper pH, which upsets the
body’s homeostasis.