ECE 321

Analog Electronics 2
Prepared by:

Engr. Angelito A. Silverio, Ph.D.

The Diode Current
Forward Current

Thermal
voltage
The Diode AC Dynamic Resistance (re)
 The BJT Small Signal Equivalent Model
• Using the concept of “re”

T-network Model Pi-network Model

The BJT Small Signal Equivalent Model

Common-Emitter Common-Collector

Common-Base
 The BJT Amplifier Small Signal Analysis

Notes on Doing the Small Signal Equivalent Model

1. Short all DC Voltage Sources
2. Open all DC Current Sources
3. Short all Capacitors - (assuming high frequency
small signal operation)
 The BJT Small Signal Analysis
Sample Problem 1:
Determine the small signal voltage gain of the
following BJT amplifier circuit assuming hFE = 100.
 The BJT Amplifier Small Signal Analysis
Sample Problem 2:
Determine the small signal voltage gain of the
following BJT amplifier circuit assuming hFE = 100.
 The BJT Amplifier Small Signal Analysis
Sample Problem 3:
Determine the small signal voltage gain of the
following BJT amplifier circuit assuming hFE = 100.
The Field Effect Transistors
Field Effect vs Bipolar Junction Transistors
The Field Effect Transistors
The Junction Field Effect Transistors
 The JFET Small Signal Model

IDSS = Drain - Source

Current
VP = Pinch Off Voltage/
Gate – Source
turn-off voltage
 The JFET Small Signal Model
• The small signal transconductance (gm)
The MOSFET
The MOSFET Types
The MOSFET Characteristic Curves
(Enhancement Type)
How Enhancement-Type MOSFET Works
 MOSFET Equations
1. Subthreshold: (Weak Inversion/ Cut-off)
• The drain – source channel has not been established.

 Conditions Approximately, subthreshold

conduction happens when
VDS ≈ 200mV

: non-ideality factor (>1), : Thermal Voltage (kT/q)

: Subthreshold conduction current with VGS =0

• Operating mode with the highest “transconductance

“Gm”
• Used normally in low power IC design
 MOSFET Equations
2. Linear Mode: (Moderate Inversion/ Ohmic Mode)
• Drain – source channel has been established
but MOSFET behaves as a variable resistor.

 Conditions

This means that the drain – source channel

behaves almost as a resistor.

• Has moderate transconductance

 MOSFET Equations
3. Saturation Mode: (Strong Inversion)
• Drain – source channel has been established and MOSFET
behaves as a constant current source (ideally).

 Conditions
Level 1 SPICE Model
(for long channel)

• Has relatively low transconductance but the highest

control of ID in terms of VGS.
As we shrink the MOSFET, the model becomes more and more
complex. Now we are using higher SPICE Level 49
The MOS Small Signal Parameters
• Some MOS small signal parameters:
)
)

)
 The MOS Small Signal Parameters
1. Forward Transconductance (gm)
“Slope of the input characteristics”
 The MOS Small Signal Parameters
2. Channel Conductance (gds)
“slope of the output characteristics”

 Channel Resistance

Early Voltage (VA)

 The MOS Small Signal Parameters
3. Backgate Transconductance (gmbs)
“slope of the input characteristics with the input at the bulk”
The MOS Small Signal Equivalent
 The FET Amplifier
Sample Problem 4:
For the following common source amplifier, find the small signal
voltage gain (Av) given the following MOS specifications:
KP = 100 uA/V2, W/L = 10, VTH = 0.6V, λ = 0.02/V.
 Cascaded Amplifiers
• Connecting individual gain stages in series to
increase the overall voltage gain at the expense of
bandwidth reduction.

Vin A1 A2 An Vout

Total Gain:
AV = A1*A2*A3*…An
AVdB(total in dB) = A1(dB) + A2(dB) + … An(dB)
 The Cascaded Amplifier
Sample Problem 5:
Find the overall voltage gain of the following cascaded amplifier
circuit given the following transistor specifications:
KP = 10 mA/V2, VTH = 2 V, λ = 0.02/V, β = 150.
 The Cascaded Amplifier
Sample Problem 6:
Find the overall
voltage gain of the
following amplifier
circuit. Assume the
current gain (β) for
both Q1 and Q2 be
100.
What special
amplifier
configuration is this?
The Amplifier Frequency Response
 The Amplifier Frequency Response
• At Low Frequencies, the external capacitors: Coupling and Shunt/
Bypass dominate! Internal capacitances are open circuited (o.c). These
are in the nano to micro-farad ranges.
• At Midband Frequencies, external capacitors are short-circuited (s.c),
while internal caps are open-circuited (o.c)
• At High Frequencies, the internal capacitances: inter-electrode
capacitances dominate! These capacitances are due primarily to the PN
junctions! In the pico-farad range (typically: 8 to 25 pF)! This accounts
for the Transistor’s transition frequency (a.k.a unity gain bandwidth)
The Amplifier Frequency Response
• Presence of the feedback capacitor (e.g. Ccb in
CE amp, Cdg in CS amp) in an amplifier causes
the input capacitance to increase by a factor
of the gain. This is called “Miller Effect”
The Amplifier Frequency Response
Low Frequency Response - external capacitors!
The Amplifier Frequency Response

The highest cut-off frequency

amongst the three computed
fL, gives the lower cut-off
of the amplifier circuit!
 The Amplifier Frequency Response
Sample Problem 7
For the following amplifier
circuit. Compute for the
effective low cut-off
frequencies due to the
external capacitors. What
will be the effective low
cut-off frequency of the
amplifier? Let hfe = 100,
and hoe = 10u.
 The Differential Amplifier
• Used to extract the small signal voltage
difference over a large common mode signal
• Used as the 1st stage of so-called Operational
Amplifiers “op-amps”
• Applications include extracting bio-potential
signals (e.g. EEG, ECG, EMG, ERG in the micro-
volt to millivolt range) which can be corrupted
by large common-mode signals (e.g. DC offset,
60 Hz supply hum)
 The Differential Amplifier
IE1 = IE2 during quiescent condition
and always, I = IE1 + IE2
Hence,
IE1 = IE2 = ½ I
With the presence of a differential signal
Such that V1 is not equal to V2, the balance
in currents is altered linearly to retain the
constant I value.
V2 ↑ IE2 ↑ VO2 ↓ VO1 ↑ V1 held constant.

V1 ↑ IE1 ↑ VO1 ↓ VO2 ↑ V2 held constant.

Note:
VO = VCC - ICRC

V1 + - VO1
VO1 = Avdiff * (V2 – V1) + Avcm* (V2 + V1)/2

VO2 = Avdiff * (V1 – V2) + Avcm* (V2 + V1)/2 V2 - + VO2

 The Differential Amplifier
•Performance Metrics:
• AV(diff)  Differential/ single-ended mode
voltage gain
• AV(cm)  Common-mode voltage gain
• Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
The Differential Amplifier
 The Differential Amplifier
Modes of Operation:
1. Single Ended Mode – When the input is on
one input terminal while the other is
grounded
2. Differential Mode – When the effective input
is a difference signal between the two inputs
3. Common-Mode – When the two inputs have
exactly the same inputs or are tied together.
The Differential Amplifier
 The Differential Amplifier
Small Signal Analysis
In this analysis, gm = 1/re, rπ = (β+1)re
 The Differential Amplifier
1. Common-Mode Operation
 The Differential Amplifier
1. Common-Mode Operation
 The Differential Amplifier
2. Differential-Mode Operation
 The Differential Amplifier
2. Differential Mode Operation
 The Differential Amplifier
2. Differential Mode Operation
 The Differential Amplifier
2. Differential Mode Operation

It’s the gain of a single stage

ro >> RC Common Emitter Amplifier!
 The Differential Amplifier
Sample Problem 8
For a BJT Differential Amplifier, Calculate the
small signal differential voltage gain, common-
mode gain, and the common-mode rejection
ratio (in dB) given the following specifications:
RC = 5.6 kOhms, RE = 5.6 kOhms, β = 100, VCC =
15 V, VEE = -15 V.
 The Operational Amplifier

• A chip solution to implement several mathematical functions

by adjusting the external components.
• Some of its applications include: summing, difference,
integration and differentiation, compators, exponential,
logarithm, current – voltage (transimpedance), voltage –
current (transconductance), filters, oscillators etc.
 The Operational Amplifier
Characteristics of an Ideal Op-amp
1. Infinite open loop gain
2. Infinite bandwidth
3. Infinite input impedance
4. Zero output impedance

Two important Properties!

- High RIN, makes VIN+ = VIN-
since the input bias current  0
 The Operational Amplifier
• The ubiquitous 741 Opamp
The Operational Amplifier Circuits
The Operational Amplifier Circuits
Op-amp Differentiator Op-amp Integrator

Op-amp Antilog Amplifier Op-amp Log Amplifier

 The Operational Amplifier
The Instrumentation Amplifier
Used as the Sensor Interface circuit
For Bridge type sensors due to its
High Input Impedance and High
Common – Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

Bridge-type Sensor
 The Operational Amplifier
• The Bridge Type Sensors
 The Operational Amplifier
Examples of Resistive Bridge-type Sensors
1. Giant Magneto-Resistance (GMR)

2. Strain Gauge
 The Operational Amplifiers
• The Rectifier Circuits

Half-Wave Rectifier Peak Detector

Half-wave Rectifier

Full-Wave Rectifier
 The Operational Amplifiers
• The Comparator

It’s an Op-Amp utilized in Open Loop Configuration. The Op-Amp uses it’s intrinsic
High Voltage Gain (~1000 V/V)
 The Operational Amplifier
• The Window Comparator
 The Operational Amplifiers
• The Filters

Note: Quality Factor: (Q)

Filter Order = # of RC pairs  tells the roll-off Q = f0/BW
(slope at the cut-off band)
 The Operational Amplifiers
• The Filters

LOW PASS HIGH PASS

BANDPASS
BAND
STOP
 The Operational Amplifiers
• The Filter Responses
1. Low Pass Filter
 The Operational Amplifiers
• The Filter Responses
2. The High Pass Filter
 The Operational Amplifiers
• The Low Pass Filter
 Operational Amplifiers
• The High Pass Filter
 Operational Amplifiers
• Sallen Key Low Pass Filter
 Operational Amplifiers
• Sallen Key High Pass Filter
 Operational Amplifiers
• The Notch Filter (High Q Band Reject Filter)

Twin – T Topology
 Operational Amplifiers
Sample Problem 9:
Design a second order bandpass filter with a pass band of 300 to
4kHz, and a programmable pass band gain from 1 to 10.

Sample Problem 10:

Design a second order band reject filter with a stop band of 40 to
100Hz. And a programmable pass band gain from 1 to 10. Use the
Sallen Key Topology.

Sample Problem 11:

Design a Twin-T Notch Filter to remove the 60 Hz supply hum, and
having a pass-band gain of 6. Calculate the rejection quality (Q).
 Operational Amplifier
The Tone Controller
 Operational Amplifiers
• The Tone Controller (mono in and out)

Simple Tone Controller

The Baxandall Tone Control Circuit

Maximum Bass and Treble Boost Maximum Bass and Treble Cut
http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/Amplifiers/amplifiers42.php
 Operational Amplifier
The Baxandall Tone Controller

http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/Amplifiers/amplifiers42.php
 Operational Amplifiers
The Tone Controller (stereo in and out)
 Operational Amplifiers
• The Equalizers
 Operational Amplifiers
• The Equalizer
Bass range

Mid range

Treble range

Sample 3 – Band Equalizer

Adapted from: http://www.electroschematics.com/6201/3-band-equalizer/
 Operational Amplifiers
Two types of Equalizers
1. Graphic Equalizer
• It consists of multiple sliders or controls for boosting or cutting bands
or frequencies of sound.
• Five-band graphic equalizer has sliders for five fixed frequencies:
30Hz (low bass), 100Hz (mid-bass), 1kHz (midrange), 10kHz (upper
midrange) and 20kHz (treble or high-frequency).
• The equalizer can boost or cut each frequency within a range of +/-
6dB or perhaps +/- 12dB depending on the model, but each
frequency is fixed.
2. Parametric Equalizer
• It can control three aspects of each frequency: level (boost or
cut), the center or primary frequency and the bandwidth or
range of each frequency.
https://www.lifewire.com/graphic-vs-parametric-equalizer-3134842
 Operational Amplifiers
• The Howland Current Reference Generator

Set:
 The Operational Amplifier
• The Howland Current Reference Generator
(Multi-Range)
 Operational Amplifiers
• The Basic Current Reference Generator
 Operational Amplifiers
• The Low Dropout (LDO)
 Operational Amplifiers
Sample Problem 12:
Design a Howland Current Reference Generator to provide an output
current of 500 uA for an input differential voltage of 0.5 V.

Sample Problem 13:

Find a suitable value of the resistance “R” in the basic current
reference generator to generate an output current from 1 mA to 5 mA
for an input voltage range of 1V to 5V with V+ = 10 V.

Sample Problem 14:

For an LDO circuit, find a suitable value for R2 , if R1 = 10 kOhms, and
an output voltage of 5 V is desired. (VIN = 10 V, and VREF = 1.2 V).
 Operational Amplifiers
• Condition for Oscillation

This is a special case of a feedback amplifier – Positive Feedback!

To sustain oscillation: (Vo/Vs) = 1/0 (infinity) Aβ = 1
A  realized by a unity gain inverting amplifier
β  realized using a 180 deg phase shift network
Known as: Barkhausen criterion! The overall loop phase is 360 deg.
 Operational Amplifiers
Oscillators are characterized according to their
feedback network:
1. RC Oscillators  Phase Shift and Wien
Bridge
2. LC Oscillators  Hartley and Colpitts
3. Crystal Oscillators

Note! When obtaining the operating frequency, ensure that

the imaginary components of the transfer function is equal to
zero.
 Operational Amplifiers
1. The Phase Shift Oscillator

Removing all Imaginary

components gives:
 Operational Amplifiers
1. Phase Shift Oscillator
The gain due to the
three RC sections is:

Hence to obtain a
loop gain that is
equal to 1, The
inverting amplifier
must have a gain of
-29 or RF/R1 = 29.
 Operational Amplifiers
2. Wien Bridge Oscillator

Removing all Imaginary By setting R1 = R2 = R, and C1 = C2 = C

components gives:

Hence the forward gain should be 3

 Operational Amplifiers
3. The Quadrature Oscillator
- Each RC section contributes 90 deg of Phase Shift

If:
Simplifies to:

Will oscillate when

Since the loop gain = -1

 Operational Amplifiers
4. The Bubba Oscillator
- Each RC section contributes 45 deg of Phase Shift

If:

Hence to obtain a loop

gain that is equal to 1,
The inverting amplifier
must have a gain of -4 or
RF/R1 = 4.
 Operational Amplifiers
Sample Problem 15:
Design a Bubba Oscillator that has an oscillating
frequency of 100 kHz.

Sample Problem 16:

Design a Wien-Bridge Oscillator that has an
oscillating frequency of 50 kHz.
 Feedback Amplifiers
The General Structure of a Feedback Amplifier

Af  Closed loop Gain

A  Forward Gain (intrinsic open-loop gain of amplifier)
β  loop gain (feedback gain)

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifiers
• The Three Cases:
1. If |1+Aβ| > 1, then: |Af| < |A|
Negative Feedback!
2. If |1+Aβ| < 1, then: |Af| > |A|
Positive Feedback! (Gain is reinforced!)
3. If |1+Aβ| = 0, then |Af|  infinity
System is unstable or is… oscillating!
 Feedback Amplifier
Benefits of using Negative Feedback
1. Gain Desensitizing – lowers the gain variation
by a factor of (1 + Aβ)

2. Bandwidth Extension – extends the cut-off

frequency by a factor of (1+Aβ).
 Feedback Amplifier
Benefits of using Negative Feedback
3. Noise Reduction

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
4. Reduction in Non-Linear Distortion

Due to Open
Loop Gain (A) Due to Open
Loop Gain Reduction
By a factor of (1+Aβ)

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier

• The Four Types of Amplifiers:

1. Voltage Amplifier: (Vout/Vin)
2. Current Amplifier: (Iout/Iin)
3. Transconductance Amplifier: (Iout/Vin)
4. Transresistance Amplifier: (Vout/Iin)
 Feedback Amplifier
The four amplifier types will have their own applicable
feedback topologies namely: input

1. Voltage-sampling series-mixing (series-shunt)

output
(for voltage amp)
2. Current-sampling shunt-mixing (shunt-series)
(for current amp)
3. Current-sampling series-mixing (series-series)
(for transconductance amp)
4. Voltage-sampling shunt-mixing (shunt-shunt)
(for transresistance amp)
Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
1. The Voltage Amplifier

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
1. The Voltage Amplifier

Example Circuit

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedabck”
 Feedback Amplifier
2. The Current Amplifier

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
2. The Current Amplifier

Example Circuit

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
3. The Transconductance Amplifier

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
3. The Transconductance Amplifier

Example Circuit

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
4. The Transresistance Amplifier

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
4. The Transresistance Amplifier

Example Circuit

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
1. The Series Shunt Feedback

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
1. The Series Shunt Feedback
Equivalent Circuit

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
1. The Series Shunt Feedback

When obtaining the output impedance, the

Input supply (Vs) is shorted. Hence Vi = -Vf

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
2. The Shunt Series Feedback

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
2. The Shunt Series Feedback
Equivalent Circuit

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
2. The Shunt Series Feedback

When obtaining the output impedance, the

Input supply (Vs) is shorted. Hence Ii = -If
 Feedback Amplifier
3. The Series Series Feedback

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
3. The Series Series Feedback
Equivalent Circuit

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifiers
3. The Series Series Feedback

When obtaining the output impedance, the

Input supply (Vs) is shorted. Hence Vi = -Vf

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
4. Shunt Shunt Feedback

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
4. Shunt Shunt Feedback

Adapted from: Lecture notes of Prof. Ching-Yuan Yang, :Microelectronic Circuits – Feedback”
 Feedback Amplifier
4. Shunt Shunt Amplifier

When obtaining the output impedance, the

Input supply (Vs) is shorted. Hence Ii = -If
 Feedback Amplifier
Sample Problem 17:
What will be the effective closed loop gain of a series-shunt feedback network with a
forward gain A of 100 V/V, and a feedback gain β of 0.1 V/V? If its intrinsic input
impedance is 100 kOhms and intrinsic output impedance is 10 kOhms, what will be
the effective input and output impedances with the contribution of the negative
feedback?

Sample Problem 18:

What will be the effective closed loop gain of a series-series feedback network with
a forward gain A of 0.1 A/V, and a feedback gain β of 0.001 A/V? If its intrinsic input
impedance is 50 kOhms and intrinsic output impedance is 10 kOhms, what will be
the effective input and output impedances with the contribution of the negative
feedback?

Sample Problem 19:

What will be the effective closed loop gain of a shunt-shunt feedback network with a
forward gain A of 10 V/A, and a feedback gain β of 0.001 Ohms? If its intrinsic input
impedance is 10 kOhms and intrinsic output impedance is 100 kOhms, what will be the
effective input and output impedances with the contribution of the negative feedback?
 Feedback Amplifier
Sample Problem 20:
The op amp has an open-loop gain μ, a differential input resistance Rid,
and an output resistance ro. Find expressions for the forward gain (A),
the feedback gain (β), the close-loop gain (Af = Vo/Vs), the input
resistance Rin, and the output resistance Rout. (μ = 104, Rid = 100kΩ, ro
= 1kΩ, RL = 2kΩ, R1 = 1kΩ, R2 = 1MΩ, and RS = 10kΩ.)
 Feedback Amplifier
Sample Problem 21:
Let IC1 = 0.6mA, IC2 = 1mA, and IC3 = 4mA. Using these values and
assuming hfe = 100 and ro = ∝, find the open-loop gain A, the feedback
factor β , the closed loop gain Af = Io /Vs, the voltage gain Vo /Vs, the
input resistance Rin = Rif, and the output resistance Rof (between
nodes Y and Y’).
 The Linear Regulated Power Supply

AC Step Down DC
Rectifier Filter Regulator
Line Transformer Reg.
Input Out

1. Transformer: Steps down the AC Line voltage from 220 VRMS to approximately the
target DC regulated output via the turns ratio:

2. Rectifier: Converts the AC to pulsating DC. This could be half wave or full-wave circuits.
3. Filter: Converts the pulsating DC to steady or constant DC by removing the
ripple in the voltage. This is normally implemented by a high valued electrolytic capacitor
(e.g. >500 uF)
4. Regulator: Maintains the output voltage constant and resilient to load variations. Can
be implemented using zener diode circuits or linear regulator chips (78xx, 79xx series, or
LM317 (LM337) adjustable voltage outputs)
 The Linear Regulated Power Supply
• Some Important Specs…
1. Average output voltage

2. RMS output voltage

3. Form Factor

4. Rectification Ratio/ Efficiency:

5. Ripple Factor:

6. Transformer Utilization Factor

 The Linear Regulated Power Supply
• A look back at the rectifiers…

Half Wave Rectifier

Bridge-Type Full Wave Rectifier

What’s with the transformer dots?
 Indicates phase difference
What diode should I use?
 Double check the PIV or PRV ratings
PIV (PRV)  Peak Inverse (Reverse) Voltage
Half wave Rect.  PIV >= Vs (max)
Full wave Rect. (C.T)  PIV >= 2Vs (max)
Center-Tapped Transformer Full Wave Rectifier Full wave Rect. (B.T)  PIV >= Vs (max)
 The Linear Regulated Supply
Sample Problem 22:
Calculate the average (VDC), effective DC (VRMS), form
factor (FF), rectification efficient (η), and the ripple
factor (RF) of a half-wave rectifier circuit.

Sample Problem 23:

Calculate the average (VDC), effective DC (VRMS), form
factor (FF), rectification efficient (η), and the ripple
factor (RF) of a full-wave bridge type rectifier circuit.
 The Linear Regulated Power Supply
• The Filter – used to remove the “pulsating”
behaviour into a steady DC.
• At segment a-b and c-d the capacitor
is charging up.
• At segment b-c, the capacitor is
partially discharging to the load RL
• Higher RL*Cf, lower ripple!

• Cf – is also called the Reservoir Capacitor as it tries to retain (store

or hold) the voltage.
• Typical Cf values >= 500 uF. Higher Cf, lower droop rate or ripple!
 The Linear Regulated Power Supply
• The Filter – used to remove the “pulsating”
behaviour into a steady DC.

• Rs and Cs – form a low pass network that further smoothens the

output by having a cut-off frequency (fc) < 60 Hz.
fc = 1/(2*pi*Rs*Cs)
 The Linear Regulated Power Supply
• The Regulator Circuits
The Zener Diode – based regulator

Recall!
• Zener Diodes are operated in reverse bias. In this condition, it will
provide a constant voltage based on its rating.
• Typical Zener voltages include: 2.4 V, 3.3 V, 5.1 V, 12V, 15V, 18V, etc.
 The Linear Regulated Power Supply
• The Regulator Circuits (Zener-based)

• Circuit uses an Op-amp based constant current reference generator.

• This topology is synonymous to that of the LDO.
Ref: P. Antoniazzi, “Power Supply Basics”, SGS Microelectronics
 The Linear Regulated Power Supply
• The Linear Regulator ICs (built from LDOs)
1. Positive Regulated Output
 The 78XX series of regulators:
(XX - output regulated voltage)
e.g. 7805 (5V), 7812 (12V), 7815 (15V)
 The LM317 adj. regulator (0 to 30 V)
2. Negative Regulated Output
 The 79XX series of regulators:
(XX - output regulated voltage)
e.g. 7905 (-5V), 7912 (-12V), 7915 (-15V)
 The LM337 adj. regulator (0 to -30 V)
 The Linear Regulated Power Supply
• The Regulator Circuits (Linear Regulator IC)

Iadj ~ 50 uA

Reference: LM317 3 terminal positive regulator Data Sheet, Texas Instruments, 2016
 The Linear Regulated Power Supply
• The Regulator Circuits (Linear Regulator IC)
• R1 and R2 are required to set the output voltage.
• CADJ is recommended to improve ripple rejection. It prevents
amplification of the ripple as the output voltage is adjusted higher.
• Ci is recommended, particularly if the regulator is not in close
proximity to the power-supply filter capacitors. A 0.1-µF or 1-µF
ceramic or tantalum capacitor provides sufficient bypassing for most
applications, especially when adjustment and output capacitors are
used.
• CO improves transient response, but is not needed for stability.
• Protection diode D2 is recommended if CADJ is used. The diode
provides a low-impedance discharge path to prevent the capacitor
from discharging into the output of the regulator.
• Protection diode D1 is recommended if CO is used. The diode
provides a low-impedance discharge path to prevent the capacitor
from discharging into the output of the regulator.
Reference: LM317 3 terminal positive regulator Data Sheet, Texas Instruments, 2016
 The Linear Regulated Power Supply

•Performance of the Regulator can be in terms of:

Line Regulation (LR) =
Load Regulation (LoR) =

Vnl: No Load Voltage

Vfl : Full Load Voltage
 The Linear Regulated Power Supply
Sample Problem 24:
A 5.0 V stabilized power supply is required to be produced from a 12 V
rectified DC input. The maximum power rating of the zener diode is 2W.
Calculate the maximum current flowing through the diode, minimum value
of current limiting resistor (Rs), the load current if RL = 1kOhms, and the
zener current at full load.

Sample Problem 25:

The LM317 regulator chip has been used to provide a regulated DC output
of 12 V from a 30 V input. What should be the setting of R2 to provide
this? Note: R1 = 240 Ohms, Iadj = 50 uA, and Vref = 1.25 V.

Sample Problem 26:

What is the load regulation of a regulator circuit that has a full load voltage
of 12.5 V and a No-Load Voltage of 15 V? Suppose the output current is
100 mA, what is the effective output resistance of the regulator?
 The Linear Regulated Power Supply
The Complete Linear Regulated Power Supply Circuit
+/- 12 V output

Ref: P. Antoniazzi, “Power Supply Basics”, SGS Microelectronics

 The Linear Regulated Power Supply
• The Bipolar (Dual or Split) Supply Implementation
(+/- 12V)

• What’s the output capacitors (C3, C4) and diodes (D5, D6) for?
Ref: P. Antoniazzi, “Power Supply Basics”, SGS Microelectronics
 Power Amplifiers
• Power Amps are generally Large Signal Amplifiers
that can drive very small loads (e.g. speakers: R = 4
Ohms to 16 Ohms)
 Power Amplifiers
Classes of Amplifiers:
1.Conduction angle controlled amplifiers
This are power amps that are defined by the length of their
conduction state over some portion of the output waveform,
such that the output stage transistor operation lies somewhere
between being “fully-ON” and “fully-OFF”. Examples of these
include: the Class A, Class B, Class AB and Class C amplifiers.
2. Switching amplifiers
These are power amps that use digital circuits and pulse width
modulation (PWM) to constantly switch the signal between
“fully-ON” and “fully-OFF” driving the output hard into the
transistors saturation and cut-off regions. Examples of these
include: Class D, E, F, G, S, T amplifiers
 Power Amplifiers

Power Efficiency (η)

η = PL(load power) /PS(supply power)

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/amplifier/amplifier-classes.html
Power Amplifiers
 Power Amplifiers
1. Class A Power Amplifier
• Has the highest in linearity (least distortion)
• Is dissipating power 100 % of the time because of
the location of the operating point (Q-point)
• Impractical for high power applications due to
continuous heating even without input signal.
• Power Efficiency: η : 10 – 25 %
 Power Amplifiers
1. Class A Power Amplifier

Source: cc.ee.ntu.edu.tw/~lhlu/eecourses/Electronics3/Electronics_Ch13.pdf
 Power Amplifiers
1. Class A Power Amplifier
 Power Amplifiers
2. Class B Power Amplifier
• An attempt to remove the static power dissipation of
Class A amplifiers by moving the Q-point of each
Transistor to Cut-off at the cost of reduced linearity
due to a BJT deadzone (+/- 0.7 V) causing Crossover
Distortion.
• Output stage configured in a “push-pull” type
arrangement, so that each transistor device amplifies
only half of the output waveform.
• There is no DC base bias current as its quiescent
current is zero.
 Power Amplifiers
2. Class B Power Amplifier

Source: cc.ee.ntu.edu.tw/~lhlu/eecourses/Electronics3/Electronics_Ch13.pdf
 Power Amplifiers
2. Class B Power Amplifier

Source:
cc.ee.ntu.edu.tw/~lhlu/eecour
ses/Electronics3/Electronics_C
h13.pdf
 Power Amplifiers
2. Class B Power Amplifier

Sometimes referred to as the “Totem Pole” Amplifier because the two

transistors are on top of each other
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 Power Amplifiers
Class B Crossover Distortion

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/amplifier/amp_7.html
 Power Amplifiers
3. Class AB Power Amplifier

• Combines the good linearity of a Class A, and the

power efficiency of Class B. Crossover distortion is
removed by using diodes and biasing resistors.
• The Transistors are biased at about 5 – 10 % of the
quiescent current just above the cut-off.
• Power Efficiency: η : 50 – 75 %
 Power Amplifiers
3. Class AB Amplifier

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 Power Amplifiers
3. Class AB Power Amplifier
Other Techniques to reduce the crossover distortion

VBE multiplier Solution

Op-amp Solution
 Reduces the dead zone (+/- 0.7V) by
a factor of the op-amp’s DC gain.
 Power Amplifiers
3. Class C Power Amplifier
• is heavily biased so that the output current is zero for more than one half of
an input sinusoidal signal cycle with the transistor idling at its cut-off point.
• are commonly used in high frequency sine wave oscillators and certain types
of radio frequency amplifiers, where the pulses of current produced at the
amplifiers output can be converted to complete sine waves of a particular
frequency by the use of LC resonant circuits in its collector circuit.
• Power Efficiency: η : ~80 %
 The Power Transistors
They have large
emitter areas
to accommodate
large emitter
currents in the
order of > = 5 Amps.
They have narrow
emitter widths to
minimize parasitic
base resistance.
 The Power Transistors
The Power BJT Construction

• Construction is similar to a typical BJT (e.g. 2n2222A) except for the additional
drift region. Power BJTs generally have higher maximum voltage, current and
power ratings than the general purpose BJT.
• Thickness of the drift region determines the breakdown voltage
http://www.completepowerelectronics.com/power-bjt/
 The Power Transistors
Power Transistor
Packages:

TO-126 TO-220

TO-3

Since high power! Needs Heat Sink!

The Heat Sinks!