Chapter 7

Linear
Programming
Models: Graphical
and Computer
Methods
Prepared by Lee Revere and John Large

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 Learning Objectives
Students will be able to:
1. Understand the basic assumptions and
properties of linear programming (LP).
2. Graphically solve any LP problem that
has only two variables by both the
corner point and isoprofit line methods.
3. Understand special issues in LP such as
infeasibility, unboundedness,
redundancy, and alternative optimal
solutions.
4. Understand the role of sensitivity
analysis.
5. Use Excel spreadsheets to solve LP
problems.

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 Chapter Outline
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Requirements of a Linear
Programming Problem
7.3 Formulating LP Problems
7.4 Graphical Solution to an LP
Problem
7.5 Solving Flair Furniture’s LP
Problem using QM for Windows
and Excel
7.6 Solving Minimization Problems
7.7 Four Special Cases in LP
7.8 Sensitivity Analysis

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 Introduction

Linear programming (LP) is

 a widely used mathematical modeling
technique
 designed to help managers in planning
and decision making
 relative to resource allocation.
 LP is a technique that helps in resource
allocation decisions.
Programming refers to
 modeling and solving a problem
mathematically.

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 Examples of Successful
LP Applications

1. Development of a production schedule

that will
 satisfy future demands for a firm’s
production
 while minimizing total production
and inventory costs
2. Selection of product mix in a factory to
 make best use of machine-hours and
labor-hours available
 while maximizing the firm’s products

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Examples of Successful
LP Applications (continued)
3. Determination of grades of petroleum
products to yield the maximum profit
4. Selection of different blends of raw
materials to feed mills to produce
finished feed combinations at minimum
cost
5. Determination of a distribution system
that will minimize total shipping cost
from several warehouses to various
market locations

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Requirements of a Linear
Programming Problem
All LP problems have 4 properties in
common:
 All problems seek to maximize or
minimize some quantity (the objective
function).
 The presence of restrictions or
constraints limits the degree to which
we can pursue our objective.
 There must be alternative courses of
action to choose from.
 The objective and constraints in linear
programming problems must be
expressed in terms of linear equations
or inequalities.

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 5 Basic Assumptions of
Linear Programming
1. Certainty:
 numbers in the objective and constraints
are known with certainty and do not
change during the period being studied
2. Proportionality:
 exists in the objective and constraints
 constancy between production increases
and resource utilization
3. Additivity:
 the total of all activities equals the sum of
the individual activities

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 5 Basic Assumptions of
Linear Programming
(continued)
4. Divisibility:
 solutions need not be in whole numbers
(integers)
 solutions are divisible, and may take any
fractional value
5. Non-negativity:
 all answers or variables are greater than or
equal to (≥) zero
 negative values of physical quantities are
impossible

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 Formulating Linear
Programming
Problems
 Formulating a linear program involves
developing a mathematical model to
represent the managerial problem.
 Once the managerial problem is
understood, begin to develop the
mathematical statement of the problem.
 The steps in formulating a linear
program follow on the next slide.

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 Formulating Linear
Programming Problems
(continued)
Steps in LP Formulations
1. Completely understand the
managerial problem being faced.
2. Identify the objective and the
constraints.
3. Define the decision variables.
4. Use the decision variables to write
mathematical expressions for the
objective function and the
constraints.

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 Formulating Linear
Programming Problems
(continued)
The Product Mix Problem
 Two or more products are usually
produced using limited resources such as
- personnel, machines, raw materials,
and so on.
 The profit that the firm seeks to
maximize is based on the profit
contribution per unit of each product.
 The company would like to determine
how many units of each product it
should produce so as to maximize
overall profit given its limited resources.
 A problem of this type is formulated in
the following example on the next slide.
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Flair Furniture Company
Data - Table 7.1
Hours Required to Produce One Unit
Available
T C Hours This
Department Tables Chairs Week

• Carpentry 4 3 240
• Painting 2 1 100
&Varnishing
Mathematical formulation:
Profit Amount $7 $5

Constraints: 4T + 3C  240 (Carpentry)

2T + 1C  100 (Paint & Varnishing)
T ≥ 0 (1st nonnegative cons)
C ≥ 0 (2nd nonnegative cons)
Max. Objective, z: 7T + 5C
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 Flair Furniture Company
Constraints
The easiest way to solve a small LP problem, such
as that of the Flair Furniture Company, is with the
graphical solution approach.
The graphical method works only when there are
two decision variables, but it provides valuable
insight into how larger problems are structured.
When there are more than two variables, it is not
possible to plot the solution on a two-dimensional
graph; a more complex approach is needed.
But the graphical method is invaluable in providing
us with insights into how other approaches work.

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Flair Furniture Company
Constraints
120

100
2T + 1C ≤ 100
Number of Chairs

Painting/Varnishing
80

60

40 4T + 3C ≤ 240
Carpentry
20

0
20 40 60 80 100
Number of Tables
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Flair Furniture Company
Feasible Region

120
Painting/Varnishing
Number of Chairs

100

80

60
Carpentry
40
Feasible
20 Region

0
20 40 60 80 100
Number of Tables
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 Isoprofit Lines Steps
1. Graph all constraints and find the
feasible region.
2. Select a specific profit (or cost) line
and graph it to find the slope.
3. Move the objective function line in
the direction of increasing profit (or
decreasing cost) while maintaining
the slope. The last point it touches in
the feasible region is the optimal
solution.
4. Find the values of the decision
variables at this last point and
compute the profit (or cost).

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Flair Furniture Company
Isoprofit Lines
Isoprofit Line Solution Method
 Start by letting profits equal some
arbitrary but small dollar amount.
 Choose a profit of, say, $210.
- This is a profit level that can be
obtained easily without violating
either of the two constraints.
 The objective function can be written as
$210 = 7T + 5C.

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Flair Furniture Company
Isoprofit Lines
Isoprofit Line Solution Method
• The objective function is just the
equation of a line called an isoprofit line.
- It represents all combinations of (T, C) that
would yield a total profit of $210.
 To plot the profit line, proceed exactly as
done to plot a constraint line:
- First, let T = 0 and solve for the point at
which the line crosses the C axis.
- Then, let C = 0 and solve for T.
 $210 = $7(0) + $5(C)
 C = 42 chairs
 Then, let C = 0 and solve for T.
 $210 = $7(T) + $5(0)
 T = 30 tables
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Flair Furniture Company
Isoprofit Lines
Isoprofit Line Solution Method
 Next connect these two points with a
straight line. This profit line is illustrated
in the next slide.
 All points on the line represent feasible
solutions that produce an approximate
profit of $210
 Obviously, the isoprofit line for $210
does not produce the highest possible
profit to the firm.
 Try graphing more lines, each yielding a
higher profit.
 Another equation, $420 = $7T + $5C, is
plotted in the same fashion as the lower
line.

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Flair Furniture Company
Isoprofit Lines
Isoprofit Line Solution Method
 When T = 0,
$420 = $7(0) + 5(C)
 C = 84 chairs
 When C = 0,
$420 = $7(T) + 5(0)
 T = 60 tables
 This line is too high to be considered as
it no longer touches the feasible region.
 The highest possible isoprofit line is
illustrated in the second following slide.
It touches the tip of the feasible region at
the corner point (T = 30, C = 40) and
yields a profit of $410.
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Flair Furniture Company
Isoprofit Lines
120

100
Painting/Varnishing
Number of Chairs

80 7T + 5C = 210

60 7T + 5C = 420

40 Carpentry

20

0
20 40 60 80 100
Number of Tables
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Flair Furniture Company
Optimal Solution
120
Isoprofit Lines
100
Painting/Varnishing
Number of Chairs

80

Solution
60
(T = 30, C = 40)

40 Carpentry

20

0
20 40 60 80 100
Number of Tables
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Flair Furniture Company
Corner Point
Corner Point Solution Method
 A second approach to solving LP
problems
 It involves looking at the profit at
every corner point of the feasible
region
 The mathematical theory behind LP is
that the optimal solution must lie at
one of the corner points in the feasible
region

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 Corner Point
Corner Point Solution Method, Summary
1. Graph all constraints and find the
feasible region.
2. Find the corner points of the feasible
region.
3. Compute the profit (or cost) at each
of the feasible corner points.
4. Select the corner point with the best
value of the objective function
found in step 3. This is the optimal
solution.

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Flair Furniture Company
Corner Point
Corner Point Solution Method
 The feasible region for the Flair Furniture
Company problem is a four-sided polygon
with four corner, or extreme, points.
 These points are labeled 1 ,2 ,3 , and 4 on
the next graph.
 To find the (T, C) values producing the
maximum profit, find the coordinates of
each corner point and test their profit levels.

Point 1:(T = 0,C = 0) profit = $7(0) + $5(0) = $0

Point 2:(T = 0,C = 80) profit = $7(0) + $5(80) =
$400
Point 3:(T = 30,C = 40) profit = $7(30) + $5(40) =
$410
Point 4 : (T = 50, C = 0) profit = $7(50) + $5(0) =
$350
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Flair Furniture Company
Optimal Solution
120
2
Corner Points
100
Painting/Varnishing
Number of Chairs

80

Solution
60
(T = 30, C = 40)

40 Carpentry
3
20
1
0
20 4 60
40 80 100
Number of Tables
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 Flair Furniture - QM
for Windows
To use QM for Windows,
1. Select the Linear Programming module.
2. Then specify
- the number of constraints (other than the
non-negativity constraints, as it is assumed
that the variables must be nonnegative),
- the number of variables, and
- whether the objective is to be maximized or
minimized.
For the Flair Furniture Company problem, there are
two constraints and two variables.

3. Once these numbers are specified, the input

window opens as shown on the next slide.

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 Flair Furniture - QM for
Windows (continued)

4. Next, the coefficients for the objective

function and the constraints can be entered.
- Placing the cursor over the X1 or X2 and
typing a new name such as Tables and
Chairs will change the variable names.
- The constraint names can be similarly
modified.
- When you select the Solve button, you get
the output shown in the next slide.

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 Flair Furniture - QM
for Windows (continued)

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 Flair Furniture - QM
for Windows (continued)
5. Modify the problem by selecting the
Edit button and returning to the input
screen to make any desired changes.
6. Once these numbers are specified, the
input window opens as shown on the
next slide.
7. Once the problem has been solved, a
graph may be displayed by selecting
Window—Graph from the menu bar in
QM for Windows.
8. The next slide shows the output for the
graphical solution.
Notice that in addition to the graph, the
corner points and the original problem
are also shown.
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 Flair Furniture - QM
for Windows (continued)

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 Flair Furniture –
Solver in Excel
To use Solver, open an Excel sheet and:
1. Enter the variable names and the coefficients
for the objective function and constraints.
2. Specify cells where the values of the variables
will be located. The solution will be put here.
3. Write a formula to compute the value of the
objective function. The SUMPRODUCT
function is helpful with this.
4. Write formulas to compute the left-hand sides
of the constraints. Formulas may be copied and
pasted to these cells.
5. Indicate constraint signs (≤, =, and ≥) for
display purposes only. The actual signs must be
entered into Solver later, but having these
displayed in the spreadsheet is helpful.
6. Input the right-hand side values for each
constraint.

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 Flair Furniture – Solver
in Excel (continued)
Once the problem is entered in an Excel sheet,
follow these steps to use Solver:
1. In Excel, select Tools—Solver.
• If Solver does not appear on the menu
under Tools, select Tools—Add-ins and
then check the box next to Solver Add-in.
Solver then will display in the Tools drop-
down menu.
2. Once Solver has been selected, a window will
open for the input of the Solver Parameters.
Move the cursor to the Set Target Cell box and
fill in the cell that is used to calculate the value
of the objective function.
3. Move the cursor to the By Changing Cells box
and input the cells that will contain the values
for the variables.
4. Move the cursor to the Subject to the
Constraints box, and then select Add.
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 Flair Furniture – Solver
in Excel (continued)
Solver steps, continued:
5. The Cell Reference box is for the range of cells
that contain the left-hand sides of the
constraints.
6. Select the ≤ to change the type of constraint if
necessary. Since this setting is the default, no
change is necessary.
• If there had been some ≥ or = constraints in
addition to the ≤ constraints, you would
have to input all of one type [e.g., ≤] first,
and then select Add to input the other type
of constraint.
7. Move the cursor to the Constraint box to input
the right-hand sides of the constraints. Select
Add to finish this set of constraints and begin
inputting another set, or select OK if there are
no other constraints to add.

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 Flair Furniture – Solver
in Excel (continued)
Solver steps, continued:
8. From the Solver Parameters window, select
Options and check Assume Linear Model and
check Assume Non-negative; then click OK.
9. Review the information in the Solver window
to make sure it is correct, and click Solve.
10. The Solver Solutions window is displayed and
indicates that a solution was found. The values
for the variables, the objective function, and the
slacks are shown also.
11. Select Keep Solver Solution and the values in
the spreadsheet will be kept at the optimal
solution.
12. You may select what sort of additional
information (e.g., Sensitivity) is to be presented
from the reports Window (discussed later).
You may select any of these and select OK to
have these automatically generated.
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Flair Furniture – Solver
in Excel (continued)
 On the next slide is an example of
the type of worksheet used in Excel
for Solver.
 The worksheet demonstrates some of
the steps previously discussed.

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 Flair Furniture –
Example Solver
Worksheet

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 Solving Minimization
Problems
Many LP problems minimize an objective,
such as cost, instead of maximizing a
profit function. For example,
• A restaurant may wish to develop a work
schedule to meet staffing needs while
minimizing the total number of employees.
Or,
 A manufacturer may seek to distribute its
products from several factories to its many
regional warehouses in such a way as to
minimize total shipping costs.
Or,
 A hospital may want to provide a daily meal
plan for its patients that meets certain
nutritional standards while minimizing food
purchase costs.
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 Solving Minimization
Problems
Minimization problems can be solved
graphically by
 first setting up the feasible solution
region and then using either
 the corner point method or
 an isocost line approach (which is
analogous to the isoprofit approach in
maximization problems)
to find the values of the decision variables
(e.g., X1 and X2) that yield the minimum
cost.

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 Solving Minimization
Problems
Holiday Meal Turkey Ranch example
Minimize: 2X1 + 3X2

Subject to:
5X1 + 10X2 90 oz. (A)
4X1 + 3X2 48 oz. (B)
½ X1 1 ½ oz. (C)
X1, X2  0 (D)
where,
X 1 = # of pounds of brand 1 feed purchased
X 2 = # of pounds of brand 2 feed purchased
(A) = ingredient A constraint
(B) = ingredient B constraint
(C) = ingredient C constraint
(D) = non-negativity constraints
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 Holiday Meal Turkey
Ranch
Using the Corner Point Method
To solve this problem:
1. Construct the feasible solution region.
 This is done by plotting each of the three
constraint equations.
2. Find the corner points.
 This problem has 3 corner points, labeled
a, b, and c.

- Minimization problems are often unbound

outward (i.e., to the right and on top), but
this causes no difficulty in solving them.
- As long as they are bounded inward (on
the left side and the bottom), corner points
may be established.
- The optimal solution will lie at one of the
corners as it would in a maximization
problem.
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 Holiday Meal Turkey
Problem
Corner Points

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 Solving Minimization
Problems
Using the Isocost Line Approach
 As with isoprofit lines, there is no
need to compute the cost at each
corner point, but instead draw a series
of parallel cost lines.
 The lowest cost line (i.e., the one
closest in toward the origin) to touch
the feasible region provides the
optimal solution corner.
1. Start, for example, by drawing a 54-
cent cost line, namely 54 = 2X1 + 3X2.
- Obviously, there are many points in the
feasible region that would yield a lower
total cost.

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 Solving Minimization
Problems (continued)
2. Proceed to move the isocost line
toward the lower left, in a plane
parallel to the 54-cent solution
line.
3. The last point touched while still in
contact with the feasible region is
the same as corner point b of the
Corner Point diagram in the
previous slide.
- It has the coordinates (X1 = 8.4, X2 =
4.8) and an associated cost of 31.2
cents.

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 Holiday Meal Turkey
Problem
Isoprofit Lines

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 Special Cases in LP
Four special cases and difficulties arise at times
when solving LP problems:
1. Infeasibility:
- lack of a feasible solution region can occur if
constraints conflict with one another.
2. Unbounded Solutions:
- when the objective function in a maximization
problem can be infinitely large, the problem is
unbounded and is missing one or more constraints.
3. Redundancy:
- a redundant constraint is one that does not affect the
feasible solution region.
4. More than One Optimal Solution:
- two or more optimal solutions may exist, and
- this actually allows management great flexibility in
deciding which combination to select.

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 A Problem with No
Feasible Solution
X2

6
Region Satisfying
4
3rd Constraint
2

2 4 6 8 X1

Region Satisfying First 2 Constraints

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A Solution Region That is
Unbounded to the Right
X2

15 X1 > 5
X2 < 10

10

Feasible Region
5

X1 + 2X2 > 10
0

5 10 15 X1

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 A Problem with a
Redundant Constraint
X2

30

25 2X1 + X2 < 30 Redundant

Constraint
20
X1 < 25
15

10
X1 + X2 < 20
5

0 Feasible
Region

X1
5 10 15 20 25 30
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An Example of Alternate
Optimal Solutions

8
Optimal Solution Consists of
7
All Combinations of X1 and
6 X2 Along the AB Segment
5 A Isoprofit Line for $8
4
Isoprofit Line
3
B for $12
2 Overlays Line
AB
1 Segment
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

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 Sensitivity Analysis
 Optimal solutions to LP problems so far have
been found under deterministic assumptions.
- This means that we assume complete
certainty in the data and relationships of a
problem
- i.e., prices are fixed, resources known,
time needed to produce a unit exactly set.
 But in the real world, conditions are dynamic
and changing.
 Questions to be addressed include:
- How sensitive is the optimal solution to
changes in profits, resources, or other
input parameters?

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for Management, 9e Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
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 Sensitivity Analysis
 One way to reconcile the discrepancy
between the deterministic assumptions with
dynamic and changing real-world conditions
is to determine
- how sensitive the optimal solution is to model
assumptions and data.
 An important function of sensitivity analysis
is to allow managers to experiment with
values of the input parameters.
 Such analyses are used to examine the effects
of changes in three areas:
- contribution rates for each variable,
- technological coefficients (the numbers in the
constraint equations), and
- available resources (the right-hand-side
quantities in each constraint).

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for Management, 9e Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
by Render/Stair/Hanna
 Sensitivity Analysis
 Sensitivity analysis is alternatively called
‾ postoptimality analysis,
‾ parametric programming, or
‾ optimality analysis.
 Sensitivity analysis also often involves a
series of “what-if?” questions. For example:
‾ What if the profit on product 1 increases
by 10%?
‾ What if less money is available in the
advertising budget constraint?
 Sensitivity analysis can be used to deal not
only with
‾ errors in estimating input parameters to
the LP model
but also with
‾ management’s experiments with possible
future changes in the firm that may affect
profits.

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for Management, 9e Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
by Render/Stair/Hanna
 Sensitivity Analysis
Two Means to Conduct Sensitivity Analysis
1. There are two approaches to
determining just how sensitive an
optimal solution is to changes.
- The first is simply a trial-and-error
approach.
 This approach usually involves
resolving the entire problem,
preferably by computer, each time one
input data item or parameter is
changed.
 It can take a long time to test a series
of possible changes in this way.

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for Management, 9e Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
by Render/Stair/Hanna
 Sensitivity Analysis

Two Means to Conduct Sensitivity Analysis

2. The preferred approach is the Analytic
Postoptimality Method.
 After an LP problem has been solved,
attempt to determine a range of changes
in problem parameters that
- will not affect the optimal solution or
- change the variables in the solution.
 This is done without resolving the whole
problem.
 Postoptimality analysis means examining
changes after the optimal solution has
been reached.

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for Management, 9e Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
by Render/Stair/Hanna
 Sensitivity Analysis
Changes in the Objective
Function Coefficient
 In real-life problems, contribution rates
- usually profit or cost
 in the objective functions fluctuate periodically
- as do most of a firm’s expenses.
 Graphically, this means that
- although the feasible solution region
remains exactly the same,
- the slope of the isoprofit or isocost line will
change.
 The objective function coefficient (profit/cost)
of any variable can increase or decrease, and
- the current corner point may remain
optimal if the change is not too large.
 However, if this coefficient increases or
decreases too much
- then the optimal solution would be at a
different corner point.
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by Render/Stair/Hanna
 Sensitivity Analysis
Changes in the Objective
Function Coefficient
 Solver in Excel produces a Sensitivity
Report (an example is on the next slide).
 Excel provides the allowable increases
and decreases for the objective function
coefficients.
 By adding the allowable increase to the
current value, the upper bound may be
obtained.
 For example,
- The Allowable Increase on the profit
(objective coefficient) for CD players is
10, which means that the upper bound on
this profit is $50 + $10 = $60.
- Similarly, the allowable decrease may be
subtracted from the current value to obtain
the lower bound.
To accompany Quantitative Analysis 7-58 © 2006 by Prentice Hall, Inc.
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by Render/Stair/Hanna
 Sensitivity Analysis
Changes in the Objective
Function Coefficient
Excel’s Sensitivity Analysis Output
for High Note Sound Company

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for Management, 9e Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
by Render/Stair/Hanna
 Changes in the
Resources or Right-
Hand-Side Values
 The right-hand-side values of the constraints often
represent resources available to the firm.
 The resources could be labor hours, machine time,
or perhaps money or production materials available.
 In the High Note Sound Company example, two
resources are
- hours available of electricians’ time and
- hours of audio technicians’ time.
 If additional hours were available, a higher total
profit could be realized
 Sensitivity analysis about resources will help
answer questions as these:
- How much should the company be willing to pay
for additional hours?
- Is it profitable to have some electricians work
overtime?
- Should we be willing to pay for more audio
technician time?

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for Management, 9e Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
by Render/Stair/Hanna
 Changes in the
Resources or Right-
Hand-Side Values
 If the right-hand side of a constraint is
changed:
- the feasible region will change (unless the
constraint is redundant),
- and often the optimal solution will change.
 The amount of a change in the objective
function that results from a unit change in
one of the resources available is called the
dual price or dual value.
 The dual price for a constraint is the
improvement in the objective function value
that results from a one-unit increase in the
right-hand side of the constraint.

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for Management, 9e Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
by Render/Stair/Hanna
 Changes in the
Resources or Right-
Hand-Side Values
 The dual price of a resource indicates the
amount the objective function can be increased
(or decreased) given another unit of the
resource.
 However, the amount of possible increase in
the right-hand side of a resource is limited as
there is a limitation to all resources.
 If the number of hours increased beyond the
upper bound, then the objective function
would no longer increase.
- There would simply be excess (slack) hours of a
resource.
- Thus, the dual price is relevant only within
limits.
 Both QM for Windows and Excel Solver
provide these limits.
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 QM For Windows and
Changes in Right-Hand-
Side Values
 Dual prices will change if the amount of the
resource (the right-hand side, RHS, of the
constraint) goes
- above the upper bound or
- below the lower bound
given in the Ranging section of the QM for
Windows output.
 If the dual value of a constraint is zero
- the slack is positive, indicating surplus resource
- additional amount of resource will simply
increase the amount of slack.
 The dual value of zero is relevant as long as
the RHS does not go below the lower bound.
 The upper limit of infinity indicates that
adding more hours would simply increase the
amount of slack.
To accompany Quantitative Analysis 7-63 © 2006 by Prentice Hall, Inc.
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by Render/Stair/Hanna
 Excel Solver and Changes
in Right-Hand-Side
Values
 Solver gives the shadow price instead of the
dual price.
 The shadow price in the Excel output is the
equivalent to the dual price for a
maximization problem in QM for Windows.
 A shadow price is the increase in the objective
function value (e.g., profit or cost) that results
from a one-unit increase in the right-hand-
side of a constraint.
 The Allowable Increase and Allowable
Decrease for the right-hand side of each
constraint is provided, and the shadow price is
relevant for changes within these limits.
 If a change is made that exceeds these limits,
then the problem should be resolved to find
the impact of the change.
To accompany Quantitative Analysis 7-64 © 2006 by Prentice Hall, Inc.
for Management, 9e Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
by Render/Stair/Hanna