MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS:

THEORY, APPLICATIONS, AND CASES

CHAPTER 1

Introduction
OBJECTIVES
• Provide a guide to making good managerial
decisions.
• Use formal models to analyze the effects of
managerial decisions on measures of a
firm's success.
MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS
• Differs from microeconomics
• Microeconomics focuses on description.
• Managerial economics is prescriptive.
• Is an integrative course
• Brings the various functional areas of business
together in a single analytical framework
• Exhibits economies of scope
• Integrates material from other disciplines
• Reinforces and enhances understanding of those
subjects
THE THEORY OF THE FIRM
• Managerial Objective
• Make choices that increase the value of the firm.
• The value of the firm is defined as the present
value of future profits.
THE THEORY OF THE FIRM
• Managerial Choices
• Influence total revenue by managing demand
• Influence total cost by managing production
• Influence the relevant interest rate by managing
finances and risk
• Managerial Constraints
• Available technologies
• Resource scarcity
• Legal or contractual limitations
WHAT IS PROFIT?
• Two Measures of Profit
• Accounting Profit
• Historical costs
• Legal compliance
• Reporting Requirements
• Economic Profit
• Market Value
• Opportunity, or implicit cost
• More useful measure for managerial decision making
PROFIT
• Measures the quality of managers'
decision-making skills
• Encourages good management
decisions by linkage with incentives
SOURCES OF PROFIT
• Innovation
• Producing products that are better than existing
products in terms of functionality, technology,
and style
• Risk Taking
• Future outcomes and their likelihoods are
unknown, as are the reactions of rivals.
• Exploiting Market Inefficiencies
• Building barriers to entry, employing
sophisticated pricing strategies, diversifying, and
making good strategic production decisions
THE PRINCIPAL-AGENT
PROBLEM
• Managerial Interests and the Principal-
Agent Problem
• The interests of a firm's owners and those
of its managers may differ, unless the
manager is the owner.
THE PRINCIPAL-AGENT
PROBLEM
• Separation of ownership and control
• The principals are the owners.
• They want managers to maximize the value of
the firm.
• The agents are the managers.
• They want more compensation and less
accountability.
• The divergence in goals is the principal-
agent problem.
MORAL HAZARD
• Moral hazard exists when people
behave differently when they are not
subject to the risks associated with
their behavior.
• Managers who do not maximize the
value of the firm may do so because
they do not suffer as a result of their
behavior.
SOLUTION: MORAL HAZARD
• Devise methods that lead to
convergence of the interests of the
firm's owners and its managers
• Examples: Stock option plans or
bonuses linked to profits
DEMAND AND SUPPLY:
A FIRST LOOK
• Market
• A group of firms and individuals that
interact with each other to buy or sell a
good
• Part of an economy's infrastructure
• A social institution that exists to facilitate
economic exchange
• Relies on binding, enforceable contracts
THE DEMAND SIDE OF THE
MARKET
• Demand Function
• Quantity demanded relative to price,
holding other possible influences
constant.
• Negative slope
• Period of time
• Shifts in demand
THE DEMAND SIDE OF THE
MARKET
• Other Influences (held constant)
• Income
• Prices of substitutes and complements
• Advertising expenditures
• Product quality
• Government fiat
THE DEMAND SIDE OF THE
MARKET
• Total Revenue Function
• A firm's total revenue (TR) for a given
time period is equal to the price charged
(P) times the quantity sold (Q) during
that time period.
• TR = P X Q
• The demand function reflects the effect of
changes in P on quantity demanded (Q)
per time period and, hence, the effect of
changes in P on TR.
THE SUPPLY SIDE OF A
MARKET
• Supply Function
• Quantity supplied relative to price,
holding other possible influences constant
• Positive slope
• Period of time
• Shifts in supply
• Other influences (held constant)
• Technology
• Cost of production inputs (Land, Labor,
Capital)
EQUILIBRIUM PRICE
• Disequilibrium
• Price is too high
• Excess supply
• Surplus
• Causes price to fall
• Price is too low
• Excess demand
• Shortage
• Causes price to rise
EQUILIBRIUM PRICE
• Equilibrium Price
• Quantity demanded is equal to quantity
supplied.
• Price is stable.
• The market is in balance because
everyone who wants to purchase the
good can, and every seller who wants to
sell the good can.
ACTUAL PRICE
• Invisible Hand
• No governmental agency is needed to
induce producers to drop or increase their
prices.
• If actual price is above equilibrium price,
there will be a surplus that puts
downward pressure on the actual price.
ACTUAL PRICE
• If actual price is below equilibrium price, there
will be a shortage that puts upward pressure on
the actual price.
• If actual price is equal to equilibrium price, then
there will be neither a shortage nor a surplus
and price will be stable.
WHAT IF THE DEMAND
CURVE SHIFTS?
• Increase in Demand
• Represented by a rightward or upward
shift in the demand curve
• Result of a change that makes buyers
willing to purchase a larger quantity of a
good at the current price and/or to pay a
higher price for the current quantity
• Will create a shortage and cause the
equilibrium price to increase
WHAT IF THE DEMAND
CURVE SHIFTS?
• Decrease in Demand
• Represented by a leftward or downward
shift in the demand curve
• Result of a change that makes buyers
purchase a smaller quantity of a good at
the current price and/or continue to buy
the current quantity only if the price is
reduced
• Will create a surplus and cause the
equilibrium price to decrease
WHAT IF THE SUPPLY CURVE
SHIFTS
• Increase in Supply
• Represented by a rightward or downward
shift in the supply curve
• Result of a change that makes sellers
willing to offer a larger quantity of a good
at the current price and/or to offer the
current quantity at a lower price
• Will create a surplus and cause the
equilibrium price to decrease
WHAT IF THE SUPPLY CURVE
SHIFTS
• Decrease in Supply
• Represented by a leftward or upward shift
in the supply curve
• Result of a change that makes sellers
willing to offer a smaller quantity of a
good at the current price and/or to offer
the current quantity at a higher price
• Will create a shortage and cause the
equilibrium price to increase
 This concludes the
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