UNIT II - ELEMENTS OF CNC MACHINES

Interpolations - Open loop and closed loop control systems

- CNC controllers – Direct Numerical Control, Adaptive
Control - Machine structures, slide ways, linear bearings,
Recirculating ball screws, Drives - spindle and feed drives -
Feed back devices, ATC and automatic pallet system.
 CNC Machines
• What is a CNC Machine?
– Numerical Control Machines.
• Programs are input thru input devices like tape or punched
cards.
• NC machines control only the position of job relative to
cutting tool.
• Feed rate, speed and tools will be selected by the operator.
• The instruction from the Tape will be converted into machine
movement by MCU units.
 Categories of CNC M/c
NC applications have two categories
1. Machine tool applications
-drilling, milling, turning & other metal working
operations
2. Non-machine tool applications
- assembly, drafting & inspection.

History: John Parson , Frank Stulen in collaboration with

MIT for the USA air force.
NC – predecessor of CNC
 Basic components of CNC Machine
• Program of instructions is detailed step by step command to
that direct the processing unit.
• Machine Control Unit (MCU) is the brain of the NC
machine.
• Machine Tools or Processing equipment which performs
useful work
 TYPES OF CNC MACHINE
• CNC Machining Centers
• CNC Turning Centers
• CNC Drilling Machines
• EDM Sinker and wire cut Machines
• Flame and Laser-Cutting Machines
• Water Jet Profilers
• CNC Boring machines
• CNC Punching machines
• CNC Grinding machines
• CNC Welding machines
• CNC Bending machines
 Basic principle of CNC
Each axis consists of a mechanical component, such as a
slide that moves, a servo drive motor that powers the
mechanical movement, and a ball screw to transfer the
power from the servo drive motor to the mechanical
component. These components, along with the
computer controls that govern them, are referred to as
an axis drive system.

• Additionally, a CNC axis may be either a linear axis in

which movement is in a straight line, or a rotary axis with
motion following a circular path.
CNC Machine Tools
Classification of CNC M/c
Based on 3. Power drives:
1. Motion control 1. hydraulic,
1. Point – to – point 2. electric or
2. Straight line or paraxial 3. Pneumatic
control 4. hybrid
3. Continuous path Control or 4. Positioning systems:
Contour systems 1. incremental and
4. Combined motion control
2. absolute positioning
system
2. Feedback Control 5. Circuit technology
1. Hardwired NC or analog
1. open loop
2. Soft-wired (CNC) or digital
2. closed loop
3. Semi-closed loop 6. Axis identification
2,3,4and 5 axes
 NC Motion Control
• Point-to-Point systems
– Also called position systems
– System moves to a location and performs an
operation at that location (e.g., drilling)
– Also applicable in robotics
• Continuous path systems
– Also called contouring systems when control of 2 or>2
axe is present
– System performs an operation during movement (e.g.,
milling and turning)
 NC Motion Control

Continuous path systems

Point-to-Point systems
 1.Control system based
Point-to-point control systems
• It cause the tool to maintain continuous contact with the part as
the tool cuts a contour shape. These operations include milling
along any lines at any angle, milling arcs and lathe turning.
 Motion Control
Point-to-point control Linear control Contouring control (continual)

drilling milling machines, lathes machining (milling, turning)

point-to-point motion – tool is moved to specific location, path or speed of move

between location is not controlled. (drilling)
Linear control – movement along one of the axes of the machine.
Contouring control – movement can be made in two or more axes
simultaneously.
 Interpolation Methods
1. Linear interpolation
– Straight line between two points in space
2. Circular interpolation
– Circular arc defined by starting point, end point, center or
radius, and direction
3. Helical interpolation
– Circular plus linear motion
4. Parabolic interpolation
5. Cubic interpolation
– Free form curves using higher order equations
 Circular Interpolation Methods

Approximation of a curved path in NC by a series of straight

line segments, where tolerance is defined on only the inside of
the nominal curve
 Circular Interpolation Methods

Approximation of a curved path in NC by a series of straight

line segments, where tolerance is defined on only the inside of
the nominal curve
 Circular Interpolation Methods

Approximation of a curved path in NC by a series of straight line

segments, where tolerance is defined on both the inside and outside of
the nominal curve
 2.Feedback based
Open Loop System Closed Loop System
• Uses stepping motor to create • AC, DC, and hydraulic servo motors are
movement. Motors rotate a fixed used. The speed of these motors are
amount for each pulse received from the variable and controlled by the amount of
MCU. The motor sends a signal back current or fluid. The motors are connect
indicating that the movement is to the spindle and the table. A device
completed. No feedback to check how called a resolver continuously monitors
the movement and sends back a single
close the actual machine movement to MCU to make adjustments.
comes to the exact movement
programmed.
 3.Drives of CNC machine tool
• Hydraulic actuator
– high power machine tool
• Stepping motor
– small machine due to limited power and torque
• DC motor
- excellent speed regulation, high torque, most
widely used
 4.Coordinate System
1.Absolute . In this mode, the desired target position of the tool
for a particular move is given relative to the origin point of the
program.

2. Incremental. In this mode, the next target position for the tool
is given relative to the current tool position.
 NC Coordinate Systems
Based on the Cartesian Coordinate system
For flat and prismatic (block-like) parts:
 Milling and drilling operations
 Conventional Cartesian coordinate system
 Rotational axes about each linear axis

For rotational parts:

 Turning operations
 Only x- and z-axes

Z-axis is always
parallel to the axis of
rotation
NC Coordinate Systems
 Features of CNC
1. Storage of more than one part program
-Memory expansions possible

2. Various forms of program input

- initially hardwired, magnetic tapes, floppy. Now
RS2 32

3. Program editing at the machine tool

4. Fixed cycles and programming subroutines -
Macros
5. Interpolation
 Features of CNC
6. Positioning features for setup
- ‘Position set’ feature, references the m/c tool axes to a point or a set of
points on the fixture. Operator does not do it.

7. Cutter length and size compensation

-cutter sensor used to calculate exact dimensions of tool and
cutter offset, as they may be different from that originally
planned
8. Acceleration and deceleration computations
- to avoid tool marks during direction change
9. Communications interface
- RS-232 standards allow m/c tool to link with other computer
driven devices for
• downloading programs,
• collecting operational data and
• interfacing with peripheral equipment like robots, AS/R, AGVs
 Machining Centre

Machining centre is a machine tool capable of

performing several different machining operations
on a work part in one setup under program
control
• capable of milling, drilling, reaming, tapping,
boring, facing, and similar operations.
Characterizations of an NC machining center:
Automatic tool-changing capability
Automatic work part positioning –has a rotary table
Pallet shuttle.
 Machining Centre - types

Three types of machining centres

1. Vertical Machining centre
2. Horizontal Machining centre
3. Universal Machining centre
 Machining Centre - types

• Vertical
– For flat
work
pieces
that
require
tool
access
from the
top
Vertical Machining Centre
 Machining Centre - types
• Horizontal
• For cube shaped parts, where access is required all sides
• Has spindle on the horizontal axis
 Universal
Machining
Centre
• Spindle axis can
be tilted from
horizontal to
vertical
• Equivalent to 5-
axis machining
CNC Controllers
 CNC Controllers
CNC controller interprets part program instructions and then converts them into two
types of control signals:
• Motion control signals
- a series of electric pulse trains that control position and the speed of machine
table and spindle.
- Each pulse activates a motion of one basic length-unit (BLU) which is the
minimum increment size of the NC control system
- number of pulses transmitted to each axis determines the incremental axis
position; frequency of these pulses regulates the axis speed
 CNC Controllers
• The control signals in CNC systems are in the form of
binary words. Each word contains a fixed number of
bits, 32 bits or 64 bits are commonly used.
• Each bit of data produces one BLU motion in the
controlled axis.
• A 32-bit word could represent one of up to 232 =
4,294,967,296 different axial positions.
– If the system resolution is, for example, BLU =
0.0001 in., this number can represent up to 429,969
in. possible motions, which is more than enough for
all types of applications
 CNC Controllers
 Miscellaneous control signals
-a set of on/off signals to implement the control of
1. speed and direction of the spindle rotation,
2. control of coolant supply,
3. selection of cutting tool,
4. automatic clamping and unclamping, etc.
 Advantages of CNC
• Increased productivity
• Reduced production costs
• Facilitation of complex machining operations
• Improved production planning and control
• Facilitation of flexible automation
• High accuracy and repeatability
• Reduced indirect operating costs
• Greater flexibility
• Lower operator skill requirement
 Disadvantages of CNC
• High initial cost
– Equipment and installation
• High maintenance cost
• Skilled CNC personnel required
• Have to be installed in air-conditioned places
• Not suitable for long run applications
 Direct Numeric Control
(DNC)
• Direct numerical control (DNC) – control of multiple
machine tools by a single (mainframe) computer
through direct connection and in real time
– 1960s technology
– Two way communication

• Distributed numerical control (DNC) – network

consisting of central computer connected to machine
tool MCUs, which are CNC
– Present technology
– Two way communication
 Direct Numeric Control
(DNC)
- Bypasses the need for a MCU
- Processing of part programs are done on a centralized
computer
- Program transmitted to the MCU, one block at a time (BTR)

Basic components
• Mainframe computer
– Connected via satellite computers or lengthy cables
• Bulk memory
• Communications network
• NC machine tools
 Direct Numeric Control
(DNC)
Advantages:
• Higher reliability than hardwired MCUs
• Elimination or error prone tape and tape-reader
• Control of multiple machines
• Improved computational capability for circular
interpolations
• Part programs stored in a central location
• Computers located in an environmentally
agreeable location
 Direct Numeric Control
(DNC)
Types of DNC
- based on communication link between
machine tool and computer

1. Dedicated MC
- Similar to a CNC as MCU is hardwired
2. Behind the tape reader (BTR) interface
-cheaper to use
- easily implemented
-receives only the program of the part to be
manufactured
 Direct Numeric Control
(DNC)

Connection to MCU is behind the tape reader (BTR). In distributed NC, entire
programs are downloaded to each MCU, which is CNC rather than
conventional NC
 Distributed Numeric Control
(DNC)
• Similar to CNC computers
• Improved data collection
Direct Numeric Control
(DNC)
 Distributed Numeric Control (DNC)
Limitations
1. No of machines
2. Frequency of service required for each machine
 Distributed Numeric
Control(DNC)-LAN configuration
 Adaptive Control
• “to adapt” means to change a behavior to conform
to new circumstances.

• An adaptive controller
a controller that can modify its behavior in
response to the changes in dynamics of the
processes and the disturbances acting on the
process.

• A self-correcting form of optimal control

 Adaptive Control
• In machining, it includes automatic adjustment of
cutting parameters like speeds, feeds, depth of cut, etc.

General
Configuration
 Adaptive Control
Adaptive controller performs 3 functions
1. Identification
- Identifies the current value of performance index
- Functions continuously to be dynamic
2. Decision
-decide what changes have to be made to
improve system performance
3. Modification
- implement the decision
 Adaptive Control
Two types of Adaptive control
• Adaptive Control with optimization (ACO)
• Adaptive Control with constraints (ACC)

• ACO – attempts to maximize IP – index of performance

IP = MRR/ TWR
MRR = Metal Removal Rate; TWR = Tool Wear Rate
– usually an economic index of performance
• eg: Maximum production rate, minimum production cost
 Adaptive Control
• Adaptive Control with Constraints (ACC)
• Machining conditions are maximized within machine
constraints eg: maximum force or torque or power
• Two sensors are employed
– Tool vibration sensor – accelerometer mounted on the
housing
– Spindle torque sensor – strain gauges mounted on the
machine spindle
BENEFITS OFAC
Increased production rates
Increased tool life.
Greater part protection.
Less operator intervention..
Easier part programming.

MACHIINE STRUCTURE OF CNC MACHINE

CNC Machine consists of a bed, a column, head stock etc which are
rigidly connected to the bed. When the spindle rotates, the cutting force
is transmitted to machine bed, frame finally to the foundations.
The forces encountered are:
Static forces due to self weight of machine and pressure of the cutting
tool on the workpiece.
Inertia force due to rapid acceleration and deceleration.
These forces cause the table to bend and deform leading to micro error.
This micro error gets magnified during operations and lead to rejection
of products.
Due to high spindle speed, depth of cut used in cnc machines, thermal
distortion also arises and results in error.

To maintain rigidity of machine structure, the following need to be done:

Provide correctly designed mild steel structure.

• Use ribs, angle plates, etc to increase the stiffness of the machine.
• Temperature distribution should be even to all parts of the machine.
• Proper flow of chip, coolant.
• Reduce ambient temperature by placing machine in air-conditioned
room.
• Alignment of the machine element should be proper with each other.
SLIDE WAYS:
It is one used for movement between two members of machine tool, viz.
Carriage and bed in a lathe. They provide alignment and fitting, required
load carrying capacity and adjustment of wear and lubrication.
Requirements of Good Slideways are:
HighAccuracy
Good Surface finish on slideways surface
High accuracy of travel
High stiffness at the sliding joints
Low coefficient of friction at varying slide velocities/
Good Damping.

Types of Sideways
1. Hydrostatic-type slideways a) Oil lubricated ii) Air bearing
2. Antifriction sideways i) Ball bearing slideways ii) Roller bearing
slideways iii) Ball screw(Recirculating ball screw)
3. Wear resistant slideways.
Hydrostatic Slideways
Air or oil is pumped into small pockets or cavities machined into the
Carriage or slides which are in contact with slideway. The pressure of the
fluid gradually reduces to atmospheric pressure as it seeps our from the
pockets, through the gap between the slide and slideway.
This provides almost a fricitonless condition for the movement of the
slide.For efficient operation, it is very important that the fluid and
slideways are kept clean.
 Slide and Slideways

Requirements of slideways
Rigid, accurate design, durable
Overcome frictional resistances :stick-slip

-to overcome this, sliding friction is

replaced with rolling friction
Air bearing slideways
Air bearing Slide ways
Antifriction slideways:
Direct metal to metal contact between slide and slideways is replaced
With rolling friction by the use of antifriction ball or roller bearings.
A linear ball bush uses recirculating balls within a bush type of bearing.
These are designed to run along precision ground shafts and offer
frictionless movement over varying strokes of length with higher linear
precision.
Antifriction slide ways uses rolling friction by the use of recirculating
balls.
A typical linear motion guide
using the rail is shown in the
figure has recirculating balls
which provide a rolling motion
Between sider and rail.At the end
Of the block there are end plates
to ensure that the balls circulate
through the rolling tracks.
Linear Motion Bearings
Linear Motion Bearings
Another type of linear motion slide
ways is a ball bush shown in the
figure. Here balls are arranged in
the track inside a bush which can
Slide along a ground rod to provide
the linear motion similar to round
Slideways usind in convetional
Machines.
Ball Screws It provides
 Low co-efficient of friction.
 High transmission efficiency.
 The load is transmitted from nut to screw through intermediate rolling
members(spherical balls).
 By preloading the assembly, clearance and backlash can be
eliminated and the axial stiffness of the ball screw can be increased.
 Friction force is virtually independent of the travel velocity and
consequently friction at rest is very low. Thus the stick slip
phenomenon is absent ensuring uniform motion.
Anti-friction type slideways
Roller bearing guideways
Improves load bearing properties
Rollers minimise friction and require small starting effort
Roll between ‘V’ grooves
Anti-friction type slideways
Recirculating Ball Screw
It consists of a screw spindle, a
nut, balls and integrated ball
return mechanism a shown in
Figure.
The flanged nut is attached to
the moving part of CNC
machine tool.
As the screw rotates, the nut
translates the moving part
along the guide ways.
As the steel balls roll along the helical groove and on reaching the end
of the nut, it should guided to starting point. This is known as
recirculation.
On referring above figure ,a steel ball at point (A) travels 3 turns of
screw groove, rolling along the grooves of the screw shaft and the ball
nut, and eventually reaches point (B).
Then, the ball is forced to change its pathway at the tip of the tube,
passing back through the tube, until it finally returns to point (A).
Whenever the nut strokes on the screw shaft, the balls repeat the same
recirculation inside the return tube. Seals are provided to keep
contaminants out. viz. plastic seal or brush type of seal used in ball-
screw drives

Thread Form of recirculating ball screw.

The thread form can either be gothic arc type or circular arc type (Below
Fig ). This has rolling type of friction.This reduces its wear as compared
with conventional sliding friction screws drives.
Recirculating balls in
lead screw and nut assembly
Recirculating balls in
leadscrew and nut assembly
Steel ball recirculation method Explanation

Steel balls are recirculated by the end caps mounted on

each end and ball recirculation tunnels within the nut's
（1） End cap method
inner wall. Good with high speed operations.

Deflectors are embedded on the nut outer tube to return

Flop over method
（2） the balls over the screw shaft land per each lead.
(Deflector method)
Suitable for compact designs.

Return tubes formed to recirculate the balls are

mounted on the outer perimeter of the nut. Easy to
（3） Return tube method assemble design is suitable for mass production, but the
physical size tend to be large.

It uses guide plates or deflectors instead of the return

（4） Guide plate method
tubes, and is good for making the design compact.
Preloading

To obtain bidirectional motion of the carriage without any positional

error, the backlash between the nut and screw should be minimum.
Zero backlash can be obtained by fitting two nuts with preloading
(tension or compression) or by applying a load which exceeds the
maximum operating load.
A shim plate (spacer) is inserted between two nuts for preloading.
Preload is to create elastic deformations (deflections) in steel balls and
ball grooves in the nut and the screw shaft in advance by providing an
axial load. As a result the balls in one of the nuts contact the one sideof
the thread and balls in the other nut contact the opposite side.
Merits of preload Advantages of ball screws
•Zero backlash •Highly efficient and reliable.
•It minimizes elastic • Less starting torque.
deformation caused by external • Lower co efficient of friction
force, thus the rigidity enhances. • Power transmission efficiency is
very high of the order of 95 %.
The problems occur when not •Could be easily preloaded to
preloaded are eliminate backlash.
•Shortened service life •The friction force is virtually
•Adverse effect on smooth independent of the travel velocity
operation and the friction at rest is very small;
• Reduced positioning accuracy consequently, the stick-slip
•Generation of noise or phenomenon is practically absent,
vibration ensuring uniformity of motion.
• Breakage of screw shaft • Has longer thread life hence need
to be replaced less frequently.
•Smooth movement over full
range of travel.
Disadvantages of ball screws
•Tend to vibrate.
• Require periodic overhauling to maintain their efficiency.
• Inclusion of dirt or foreign particles reduces the life of the screws.
• They are not self-locking screws hence cannot be used in holding
devices such as vices.
• Require high levels of lubrication.
Applications of ball screws:
• In machining center and NC lathe for accurate positioning of the table.
•Used in the equipments such as lithographic equipment or inspection
apparatus where precise positioning is required
•Used in steppers for semiconductor manufacturing industries for
precision assembly of micro parts.
• Used in robotics application where precision positioning is needed.
• Used in medical examination equipments since they are highly
accurate and provide smooth motion.
•They are not self-locking screws hence cannot be used in holding
devices such as vices. Require high levels of lubrication
DRIVES IN CNC
Two drives are used in CNC Machines
Spindle drives to provide the main spindle power for cutting.
Feed drives to drive the axis as per the progromme.

SPINDLE DRIVE
It is used to provide angular motion
to the work piece or a cutting tool.
Figure shows the components of a
spindle drive. These drives are
essentially required to maintain the
speed accurately.
The speed ranges can be from 10 to 20,000 rpm. The machine tools
mostly employ DC spindle drives and AC drives .
AC drives are preferred to DC drives due to the advent of
microprocessor-based AC frequency inverter.
Feed Drives
This is used to drive the slide or a table. The figure shows various
elements of a feed drive.
The requirements of an ideal feed drive are as follows.
•The feed motor needs to operate with constant torque characteristics to
overcome friction and working forces.
•The drive speed should be extremely variable with a speed range of
about 1: 20000.
• The feed motor must run smoothly.
• The drive should have extremely small positioning resolution.
The Spindle drives used in CNC machine tools are
• DC Motors: PM DC Motors
• AC Motors
The Spindle drives used in CNC machine tools are
 Servomotor :- AC ,DC, Brush and brushless
 Stepper motor
 Linear motor
DC motors
A DC motor is a device that converts direct current (electrical energy)
into rotation of an element (mechanical energy). These motors can
further be classified into brushed DC motor and brushless DC motors.
Brush type DC motor
A typical brushed motor consists of an armature coil, slip rings divided
into two parts, a pair of brushes and horse shoes electromagnet as shown
in figure.
A simple DC motor has two field poles namely a north pole and a south
pole. The magnetic lines of force extend across the opening between the
poles from north to south.
The coil is wound around a soft iron core and is placed in between the
magnet poles. These electromagnets receive electricity from an outside
power source.
The coil ends are connected to split rings. The carbon brushes are in
contact with the split rings. The brushes are connected to a DC source.
Here the split rings rotate with the coil while the brushes remain
stationary.
Working principle :when a current-
carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, it experiences a
mechanical force whose direction is
given by Fleming's left-hand rule.
The magnitude of the force is given
by 𝐹=𝐵𝐼𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (4.1.1)
Where, B -magnetic field density in
weber/m2
I - the current in amperes and
L - length of the conductor in meter
θ - angle between the direction of the
current in the conductor and the
electric field .If the current and filed are perpendicular then θ=90°. Then
above equation becomes 𝐹=𝐵𝐼𝐿
A direct current in a set of windings creates a magnetic field. This field
produces a force which turns the armature. This force is called torque.
This torque will cause the armature to turn until its magnetic field is
aligned with the external field.
Once aligned the direction of the current in the windings on the armature
reverses, thereby reversing the polarity of the rotor's electromagnetic
field. A torque is once again exerted on the rotor, and it continues
spinning.
The change in direction of current is facilitated by the split ring
commutator.
The main purpose of the commutator is to overturn the direction of the
electric current in the armature. The commutator also aids in the
transmission of current between the armature and the power source.
The brushes remain stationary, but they are in contact with the armature
at the commutator, which rotates with the armature such that at every
180° of rotation, the current in the armature is reversed.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• The design is quite simple • High maintenance
• Controlling is easy • Performance decreases with dust particles
• Very cost effective • Less reliable in control at lower speeds
• The brushes wear off with usage
Brushless DC motor
It has a rotor with permanent
magnets and a stator with
windings. The rotor can be of
ceramic permanent magnet type.
The brushes and commutator
are eliminated and the windings
are connected to the control
electronics.
The control electronics replace the commutator and brushes and
energize the stator sequentially. Here the conductor is fixed and the
magnet moves.
The current supplied to the stator is based on the position of rotor.
It is switched in sequence using transistors. The position of the rotor is
sensed by Hall effect sensors. Thus a continuous rotation is obtained
Advantages: Disadvantages of brushless DC
•More precise due to computer motor:
control •Higher initial cost
• More efficient •Complex due to presence of
• No sparking due to absence of computer controller
brushes •Brushless DC motor also
• Less electrical noise requires additional system wiring
• No brushes to wear out in order to power the electronic
• Electromagnets are situated on the commutation circuitry
stator hence easy to cool
•Motor can operate at speeds
above 10,000 rpm under loaded and
unloaded conditions
•Responsiveness and quick
acceleration due to low rotor inertia
AC motors
It converts AC current into the rotation of a mechanical element
(mechanical energy). A current is passed through the coil, generatinga
torque on the coil.
Components include a stator and a rotor. The armature of rotor is a
magnet and the stator is formed by electromagnets.
The main limitation of AC motors over DC motors is that speed is
more difficult to control in AC motors.
To overcome this limitation, AC motors are equipped with variable
frequency drives but the improved speed control comes together with a
reduced power quality.
The working principle of AC motor is shown in figure.
Consider the rotor to be a permanent magnet. Current flowing through
conductors energizes the magnets and develops N and S poles.
The strength of electromagnets depends on current. First half cycle
current flows in one direction and in the second half cycle it flows in
opposite direction. AsAC voltage changes the poles alternate.
AC motors can be classified into synchronous motors and induction
motors

Synchronous motor
It is an AC motor which runs at
constant speed fixed by frequency
of the system. It requires direct
current (DC) for excitation and has
low starting torque, and hence is
suited for applications that start
with a low load.
It has two basic electrical parts namely stator and rotor as shown in
figure.
The stator consists of a group of individual wounded electro-magnets
arranged in such a way that they form a hollow cylinder. The stator
produces a rotating magnetic field that is proportional to the frequency
supplied.
The rotor is the rotating electrical component. It also consists of a group
of permanent magnets arranged around a cylinder, with the poles facing
toward the stator poles. The rotor is mounted on the motor shaft.
The main difference between the synchronous motor and the induction
motor is that the rotor of the synchronous motor travels at the same
speed as the rotating magnet.
The stator is given a three phase supply and as the polarity of the stator
progressively change the magnetic field rotates, the rotor will follow and
rotate with the magnetic field of the stator.
If a synchronous motor loses lock with the line frequency it will stall. It
cannot start by itself, hence has to be started by an auxiliary motor.
Stepper motor
A stepper motor is a pulse-driven motor that changes the angular
position of the rotor in steps. It is widely used in low cost, open loop
position control systems.
Types of stepper motors:
• Permanent Magnet
o Employ permanent magnet
o Low speed, relatively high torque
• Variable Reluctance
o Does not have permanent magnet
o Low torque
Permanent magnet (PM)
stepper motor
The rotor is a permanent
magnet. Unlike the other
stepping motors, the PM motor
rotor has no teeth and is
designed to be magnetized at a
right angle to its axis.
The Figure shows a simple, 90⁰
PM motor with four phases
(A-D).
Applying current to each phase in sequence will cause the rotor to
rotate by adjusting to the changing magnetic fields.
Although it operates at fairly low speed, the PM motor has a relatively
high torque characteristic. These are low cost motors with typical step
angle ranging between 7.5⁰ to 15⁰.
Variable Reluctance Motor
The cylindrical rotor is made of soft
steel and has four poles as shown.
It has four rotor teeth, 90⁰ apart and
six stator poles, 60⁰ apart.
Electromagnetic field is produced by
activating the stator coils in
sequence. It attracts the metal rotor.
When the windings are energized in a
reoccurring sequence of 2, 3, 1, and so on, the motor will rotate in a 30⁰
step angle.
In the non-energized condition, there is no magnetic flux in the air gap,
as the stator is an electromagnet and the rotor is a piece of soft iron;
hence, there is no detent torque.
This type of stepper motor is called a variable reluctance stepper.
Hybrid stepper motor
This combine a permanent magnet and a
rotor with metal teeth to provide features
of the variable reluctance and permanent
magnet motors together. The number of
rotor pole pairs is equal to the number of
teeth on one of the rotor’s parts. The
hybrid motor stator has teeth creating
more poles than the main poles windings
Rotation is produced in the similar to a permanent magnet stepping
motor, by energizing individual windings in a positive or negative
direction. When a winding is energized, north and south poles are
created, depending on the polarity of the current flowing.
These generated poles attract the permanent poles of the rotor and also
the finer metal teeth present on rotor.
The rotor moves one step to align the offset magnetized rotor teeth to
the corresponding energized windings.
Hybrid motors are more expensive than motors with permanent magnets,
but they use smaller steps, have greater torque and maximum speed.
Step angle of a stepper motor is given by,
Step angle= 360°/ Number of poles
Advantages of stepper motors Disadvantages of stepper motors
• Low cost •Low torque capacity compared to
• Ruggedness DC motors
• Simplicity of construction • Limited speed
• Low maintenance •During overloading, the
• Less likely to stall or slip synchronization will be broken.
• Will work in any environment Vibration and noise occur when
• Excellent start-stop and running at high speed.
reversing responses
Servomotor :
These are special electromechanical devices that produce precise degrees
of rotation. It is a DC or AC or brushless DC motor combined with a
position sensing device. Also called control motors as they are involved
in controlling a mechanical system.
These motors are used in a closed-loop servo system as shown in Figure.
A reference input is sent to the servo amplifier, which controls the speed
of the servomotor. A feedback device is mounted on the machine, which
is either an encoder or resolver.
This device changes mechanical motion into electrical signals and is
used as a feedback. This feedback is sent to the error detector, which
compares the actual operation with that of the reference input.
If there is an error, that error is fed directly to the amplifier, which will
be used to make necessary corrections in control action.
In many servo systems, both velocity and position are monitored.
Servomotors provide accurate speed, torque, and have ability of direction
control.
DC servomotors
DC operated servomotors are usually respond to error signal abruptly
and accelerate the load quickly. A DC servo motor is actually an
assembly of four separate components, namely:
• DC motor
• gear assembly
• position-sensing device
• control circuit
AC servo motor
The magnetic force is generated by a permanent magnet and current
which further produce the torque. It has no brushes so there is little
noise/vibration. This motor provides high precision control with the
help of high resolution encoder. The stator is composed of a core and a
winding. The rotor part comprises of shaft, rotor core and a permanent
magnet.
Digital encoder can be of optical or magnetic type. It gives digital
signals, which are in proportion of rotation of the shaft.
Advantages of servo motors Disadvantages of servo motors
•Provides high intermittent torque, •More expensive than stepper
high torque to inertia ratio, and motors
high speeds • Require tuning of control loop
• Work well for velocity control parameters
• Available in all sizes •Not suitable for hazardous
• Quiet in operation environments or in vacuum
• Smoother rotation at lower speeds • Excessive current can result in
partial demagnetization
 Optical encoders
Optical encoders provide digital output as a
result of linear / angular displacement. These
are widely used in the Servo motors to
measure the rotation of shafts.

It comprises of a disc with three concentric

tracks of equally spaced holes.

Three light sensors are employed to detect

the light passing thru the holes.

These sensors produce electric pulses which

gives the angular displacement of the
mechanical element e.g. shaft on which the
Optical encoder is mounted.

The inner track has just one hole which is

used locate the ‘home’ position of the disc.

The holes on the middle track offset from

the holes of the outer track by one-half of the
width of the hole.
This arrangement provides the direction of rotation to be determined.

When the disc rotates in clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer track lead those in
the inner; in counter clockwise direction they lag behind.

The resolution can be determined by the number of holes on disc. With 100 holes in one
revolution, the resolution would be, 360⁰/100 = 3.6⁰

An "absolute" encoder maintains position information when power is removed from the
system. The position of the encoder is available immediately on applying power.

The relationship between the encoder value and the physical position of the controlled
machinery is set at assembly; the system does not need to return to a calibration point to
maintain position accuracy.

An absolute encoder has multiple code rings with various binary weightings which provide a
data word representing the absolute position of the encoder within one revolution. This
type of encoder is often referred to as a parallel absolute encoder.[

An "incremental" encoder accurately records changes in position, but does not power up
with a fixed relation between encoder state and physical position. Devices controlled by
incremental encoders may have to "go home" to a fixed reference point to initialize the
position measurement.
Optical encoder
An encoder is a device that provides a digital output as a
result of a linear or angular displacement.

Incremental encoders,
that detect changes in rotation from
some datum position.
 Optical encoder

Absolute encoder, which gives the actual angular position

Optical encoder

Absolute encoder
An incremental encoder works differently by providing an A and a B pulse output that
provide no usable count information in their own right.

Rather, the counting is done in the external electronics. The point where the counting
begins depends on the counter in the external electronics and not on the position of the
encoder.

To provide useful position information, the encoder position must be referenced to the
device to which it is attached, generally using an index pulse.

The distinguishing feature of the incremental encoder is that it reports an incremental

change in position of the encoder to the counting electronics

Encoders used on servomotors

Applications
Parts counting
Conveyors
Clear glass detection
Error proofing
Gate control
 ATC- AUTOMATIC TOOL CHANGER
The CNC machines are designed to perform a number of operations in a single
setting of the job. A number of tools may be required for making a complex part.

In a manual machine, the tools are changed manually whenever required. In a

CNC machine, tools are changed through program instructions.

The tools are fitted in a tool magazine or drum. When a tool needs to be
changed, the drum rotates to an empty position, approaches the old tool and
pulls it.

Then it again rotates to position the new tool, fits it and then retracts. This is a
typical tool changing sequence of an automatic tool changer (ATC).
Drum Type
For holding small number of tools usually not more than 30, Stored on
periphery of drum and tool search speed is faster.
Chain Type
For more number of tools (40 or more), tools search speed is less.

As soon as the tool selection command is received by the system, the selected
tool comes to a fixed place known as tool change position.

The selected tool is transferred to the spindle from magazine after the previous
tool is transferred to the magazine from spindle. This is called tool change cycle.
Automatic Tool Changer Advantages
(a) Lines changed in seconds instead of hours.

(b) Increase operator safety by changing tools automatically.

(c) Change tools in seconds for maintenance and repair.

(d) Increase flexibility.

(e) Heavy and large multi-tools that are automatically exchanged.

 Automatic Pallet Changers
Pallets
The workpiece is placed on a pallet (module) which can be oriented
in different directions by the machine

Automatic Pallet Changers

When the workpiece is finished, automatic pallet changers remove it
and replace it with another workpiece

The palletizing system consists of two mechanisms: the automatic pallet

changer and the clamp/unclamp mechanism which is situated on the
machining center table.

The pallet positioning and clamp/unclamp mechanism secures (clamps) and

releases (unclamps) the pallet on the machine tool table (positioning base).