Biology

Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht

Chapter 1
A View of Life
Lecture Outline
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 Outline
• 1.1 The Characteristics of Life
• 1.2 Evolution and the Characteristics of Life
• 1.3 The Process of Science
• 1.4 Challenges Facing Science

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1.1 The Characteristics of Life
• Biology is the scientific study of life.

• There is great diversity among living things.

• Living things
 are composed of the same chemical elements
as nonliving things.

 obey the same physical and chemical laws that

govern everything in the universe.

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 Diversity of Life

Despite diversity, all living things share

the same basic characteristics.
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 Characteristics of Life
1. Living things are organized.
• The levels of biological organization range
from atoms to the biosphere.

• The cell is the basic unit of structure and

function of all living things.
 Unicellular or multicellular

• Each level of organization is more complex

than the level preceding it.
 As biological complexity increases, each level
acquires new emergent properties. 5
 Levels of Biological Organization

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oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
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methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
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nerve cell plant cell

Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things

methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
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Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

nervous tissue

Cell nerve cell plant cell

The structural and functional
unit of all living things

methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Organ leaves
the brain
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

nervous tissue leaf tissue

Cell nerve cell plant cell

The structural and functional
unit of all living things

Molecule methane
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
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Organ System nervous shoot

Composed of several organs system system
working together

Organ
the brain leaves
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

nervous tissue leaf tissue

Cell nerve cell plant cell

The structural and functional
unit of all living things

Molecule methane
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
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Organism elephant tree

An individual; complex
individuals contain organ systems

Organ System nervous shoot

Composed of several organs system system
working together

Organ leaves
Composed of tissues functioning the brain
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
nervous tissue leaf tissue

Cell nerve cell plant cell

The structural and functional
unit of all living things

methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
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Population
Organisms of the same
species in a particular area

Organism tree
elephant
An individual; complex
individuals contain organ systems

Organ System nervous shoot

Composed of several organs system system
working together

Organ
the brain leaves
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

nervous tissue leaf tissue

nerve cell plant cell

Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things

Molecule methane
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
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Community
Interacting populations in a
particular area

Population
Organisms of the same
species in a particular area

Organism elephant
tree
An individual; complex
individuals contain organ systems

nervous shoot
Organ System
system system
Composed of several organs
working together

Organ leaves
Composed of tissues functioning the brain
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
nervous tissue leaf tissue

nerve cell
Cell plant cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things

methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
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Ecosystem
A community plus
the physical environment

Community
Interacting populations in a
particular area

Population
Organisms of the same
species in a particular area

Organism elephant tree

An individual; complex
individuals contain organ systems

Organ System
nervous shoot
Composed of several organs
system system
working together

Organ the brain leaves

Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
nervous tissue leaf tissue

Cell nerve cell

plant cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things

methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
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Biosphere
Regions of the Earth’s crust,
waters, and atmosphere
inhabited by living things

Ecosystem
A community plus
the physical environment

Community
Interacting populations in a
particular area

Population
Organisms of the same
species in a particular area

Organism elephant tree

An individual; complex
individuals contain organ systems

Organ System nervous shoot

Composed of several organs
working together
system system

Organ the brain leaves

Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

nervous tissue leaf tissue

nerve cell
Cell plant cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things

Molecule methane
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

Atom oxygen
Smallest unit of an element
composed of electrons, protons,
and neutrons
How the Biosphere Is Organized
• The biosphere is the zone of air, land, and
water where organisms exist.
• An ecosystem is community plus its
physical environment.
• A community is a collection of interacting
populations within the same environment.
• A population is all the members of a
species within an area.
• A group of similar, interbreeding organisms
is a species. (Not a level of organization.) 17
 How the Biosphere Is Organized
• An organism is formed when organ systems
are joined together.
• Organs work together to form organ systems.
• Tissues make up organs.
• Similar cells combine together to form
tissues.
• Molecules join to form larger molecules within
a cell.
• Atoms combine to form molecules.
• The organization of life begins with atoms. 18
 Characteristics of Life
2. Life requires materials and energy.
• Energy is the capacity to do work.
 Energy is required to maintain organization and
conduct life-sustaining processes such as chemical
reactions.
• Metabolism is all the chemical reactions that occur in a
cell.

 The sun is the ultimate source of energy for nearly all

life on Earth.
• Plants, algae, and some other organisms capture solar
energy and perform photosynthesis.

• Photosynthesis is a process that converts solar energy

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into the chemical energy of carbohydrates.
 Ecosystems
• Ecosystems are characterized by chemical
cycling and energy flow.
 Chemicals are not used up when organisms die.
• Chemicals move from one population to another in a
food chain.
• Example: Chemicals move from producers to
consumers to decomposers.
• As a result of death and decomposition, chemicals are
returned to living plants.
 Energy from the sun flows through plants and
other members of the food chain as one
population feeds on another.
• Therefore, there must be a constant input of solar 20
energy.
 Characteristics of Life
3. Living things maintain homeostasis.
• Homeostasis is the maintenance of internal
conditions within certain boundaries.
 It is imperative than an organism maintain a state of
biological balance.

 Feedback systems monitor internal conditions and

make adjustments.
4. Living things respond to stimuli.
• Living things interact with the environment and
respond to changes in the environment.
 The ability to respond often produces movement. 22
 Characteristics of Life
5. Living things reproduce and develop.
• All living organisms must reproduce to maintain
a population.

• The manner of reproduction varies among

different organisms.

• When organisms reproduce, they pass on

copies of their genetic information (genes) to the
next generation.
 Genes determine the characteristics of an organism.

 Genes are composed of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

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 Characteristics of Life
6. Living things have adaptations.
• An adaptation is any modification that makes
an organism better able to function in a
particular environment.

• The diversity of life exists because over long

periods of time, organisms respond to changing
environments by developing new adaptations.

• Evolution is the change in a population of

organisms over time to become more suited to
the environment.

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 1.2 Evolution and the
Classification of Life
• The theory of evolution explains the
diversity and unity of life.
 The theory of evolution suggests how all living
things descended from a common ancestor.
 Common descent with modification

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 Natural Selection
• Natural selection is the evolutionary mechanism
proposed by Charles Darwin.
• Some aspect of the environment selects which
traits are more apt to be passed on to the next
generation.
 Individuals with the favorable traits produce the
greater number of offspring that survive and
reproduce.
 Increases the frequency of those favorable traits in
population
• Mutations fuel natural selection.
 It introduces variations among members of a 27
population.
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Some plants within a population exhibit variation in leaf structure.

Deer prefer a diet of smooth leaves over hairy leaves. Plants with
hairy leaves reproduce more than other plants in the population.

Generations later, most plants within the population have hairy

leaves, as smooth leaves are selected against.
 Evolutionary Tree of Life

An evolutionary
tree is like a
family tree. An
evolutionary tree
traces the
ancestry of life on
Earth to a
common
ancestor.

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common
ancestor
(first cells)
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BACTERIA

common
ancestor ARCHAEA
(first cells)
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BACTERIA

common
ancestor ARCHAEA
(first cells)

cell with nucleus

EUKARYA
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BACTERIA

common
ancestor ARCHAEA
(first cells)

Protists

cell with nucleus

EUKARYA
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BACTERIA

common
ancestor ARCHAEA
(first cells)

Protists

Plants
cell with nucleus

EUKARYA
Fungi

Animals
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BACTERIA

common
ancestor ARCHAEA
(first cells)

Protists

Plants
cell with nucleus

EUKARYA
Fungi

Animals

Past Present
Time
 Organizing Diversity
• Taxonomy is the discipline of biology that
identifies, names, and classifies organisms
according to certain rules.
• Systematics is the study of evolutionary
relationships between organisms.
• Classification categories
 From least inclusive category (species) to
most inclusive category (domain):
• Species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom,
and domain
• Each successive category above species includes more
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types of organisms than the preceding one.
Levels of Classification

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 Domains
• Domain Archaea

 Contains unicellular prokaryotes that live in extreme

environments probably similar to the primitive earth
• Prokaryotes lack a membrane-bound nucleus.

• Domain Bacteria

 Contains unicellular prokaryotes that live in all

environments including on our skin and in our mouths
and intestines

• Domain Eukarya

 Contains unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes

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• Eukaryotes contain a membrane-bound nucleus.
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 Domain Bacteria

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• Prokaryotic cells
of various shapes
• Adaptations to
all environments
• Absorb, photosynthesize,
or chemosynthesize food
• Unique chemical
characteristics

Escherichia coli, a bacterium 6,600x

© A.B. Dowsett/SPL/Science Source

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Domain
Eukarya

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 Kingdoms
• Domain Archaea – kingdom designations are
being determined

• Domain Bacteria – kingdom designations are

being determined

• Domain Eukarya
 Protists (composed of several kingdoms)

 Kingdom Fungi

 Kingdom Plantae

 Kingdom Animalia 42
 Scientific Names
• Universal
• Latin-based
• Binomial nomenclature
 Two-part name
 First word is the genus.
• Always capitalized
 Second word is the species designation (or specific
epithet).
• Written in lowercase
 Both words are italicized.
 Examples: Homo sapiens (humans), Zea mays (corn)
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 1.3 The Process of Science
• The scientific method is a standard series
of steps used in gaining new knowledge
through research.
 The scientific method can be divided into five
steps:
• Observation
• Hypothesis
• Predictions and Experiments
• Data Collection with Statistical Analysis
• Conclusion 45
 The Scientific Method
1. Observation
• Scientists use their senses to gather
information about a phenomenon or natural
event.

2. Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for
what was observed.
– An example is the discovery of the antibiotic penicillin.

• It is developed through inductive reasoning.

• It is testable.
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 The Scientific Method
3. Predictions and Experiments
• An experiment is a series of procedures
designed to test a hypothesis.
 It utilizes deductive reasoning to make a
prediction or expected outcome.
• The manner in which a scientist conducts an
experiment is called the experimental
design.
 A good experimental design ensures that the
scientist is examining the contribution of a specific
factor called the experimental (independent)
variable to the observation.
• The experimental variable is the factor being tested.
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 The Scientific Method
3. Experiments (cont’d)
• A test group is exposed to the experimental
variable.
• A control group goes through all aspects of
the experiment but is not exposed to the
experimental variable.
• If the control and test groups show the same
results, the hypothesis is not supported
4. Data
• The data are the results of an experiment.
 Should be observable and objective
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 The Scientific Method
4. Data (cont’d)
• Tables and graphs are two possible formats for
the data.
• Data are analyzed using statistics.
• Measures of variation
– Standard error: How far off the average of the data is

• Statistical significance
– Probability value (p)
» Less than 5% is acceptable (p<0.05)
» The lower the p value, the greater the confidence in the results
» Not due to chance alone
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50
 The Scientific Method
5. Conclusion
• The data are interpreted to determine
whether the hypothesis is supported or not.
 If prediction happens, hypothesis is supported.
 If not, hypothesis is rejected.
• Findings are reported in scientific journals.
• Peers review the findings.
• Other scientists then attempt to duplicate or
dismiss the published findings.
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 Scientific Theory
• Scientific Theory:
 Concepts that join together two or more well-supported
and related hypotheses

 Supported by broad range of observations, experiments,

and data

• Scientific Principle / Law:

 Widely accepted set of theories

 No serious challenges to validity

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Basic Theories of Biology

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 Experimental Design

Hypothesis:

Newly discovered antibiotic B is a better treatment

for ulcers than antibiotic A, in current use.

Experimental Design:
One control group includes subjects with ulcers who
are untreated by antibiotics.

Two test groups are subjects with ulcers who are

treated with either antibiotic A or B.

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 Experimental Design
Results and Conclusion:

An endoscopy (procedure that allows doctors to

examine the linings of the throat, stomach and upper
small intestine to check for ulcers) is performed on all
subjects.

The investigators then use statistics to determine the

effectiveness of the various treatments.

On the basis of the data, the investigators conclude

that their hypothesis has been supported.

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1.4 Challenges Facing Science
• Science is a systematic way of acquiring
knowledge about the natural world.
• Technology is the application of scientific
knowledge to the interests of humans.

• Examples: cell phone, new drug, others?

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 Biodiversity and Habitat Loss
• Biodiversity is the total number and relative
abundance of species, the variability of their
genes, and the ecosystems in which they
live.
 Estimated to be as high as 15 million species
• Less than 2 million have been named and identified

• Extinction is the death of the last member

of a species or larger classification category.
 Estimates of 400 species/day lost due to human
activities 59
 The Effect of Human Activities
on Coral Reefs
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a. Healthy coral reef

1975 Minimal coral death 1985 Some coral death 1995 Coral bleaching with 2004 Coral is black from
With no fish present limited chance of recovery sedimentation; bleaching
b.
still evident

1.15a: © Frank & Joyce Burek/Getty RF; 1.15b: © Dr. Phillip Dustan
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 Biologically Diverse Ecosystems
Are in Danger
• Tropical rain forests and coral reef
ecosystems are home to many organisms.
• Both ecosystems are threatened by human
activities.
• The canopy of the tropical rain forest
supports orchids, insects, and monkeys,
among other organisms.
• Coral reefs provide habitats for jellyfish,
sponges, crabs, lobsters, sea turtles, moray
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eels, and fishes.
 Destruction of Healthy Ecosystems
Has Unintended Consequences
• Humans depend upon healthy ecosystems for:
 Food
 Medicines
 Raw materials
• Draining of wetlands of Mississippi and Ohio Rivers:
 Worsened flooding
 Ruined farmland
• Destruction of South American rain forests:
 Killed species
 Decreased availability of lumber 62
 Emerging Diseases
• Over the past decade several new disease have
been in the news:
 H5N1
 H7N9
 SARS
 Ebola
• Where do emerging diseases come from?
 New or increased exposure to insects or animals
 Changes on behaviors
 Use of technology (Legionnaires’ disease)
 Globalization
 Pathogens mutating and changing hosts (avian flu) 63
 Climate Change
• Changes in normal cycles of Earth’s climate
attributable to human activities
• Due to imbalance in chemical cycling of carbon
 More carbon is being released than removed.
• Burning of fossil fuels
• Destruction of forests and replacement by farmland
 Increase in CO2 causes temperature increases, called
global warming.
• Produced by greenhouse effect
• Global warming is changing Earth’s ecosystems

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