BUILDING MAINTENANCE & REPAIRS

DESIGN &
CONSTRUCTIO
N ERRORS
HOW ITAFFECTSREPAIR& REHABILITATIONOF
STRUCTURES
 CONTENTS
■ Introduction
■ Design and DetailingErrors
– Causes
■ Types of DesignErrors
■ Construction Errors
– Causes
■ Types of ConstructionErrors
■ Effect of Design & Construction Errors on Repair & Rehabilitation
■ Conclusion
■ References

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 INTRODUCTION
■ In buildings, repair & rehabilitation become necessary, as some parts of the building
naturally tend to deteriorate & become more defective.This may also happen due to
lack of maintenance.
■ Repair:To restore (something damaged, faulty, or worn) to a good condition, for
example repair of leakage in buildings, etc.
■ Rehabilitation:To restore something to it’s good or original condition
■ Design and construction errors increase the cost and schedule overruns

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 PLASTIC
SHRINKAGE

SETTLEMENT
SHRINKAGE
DRYING
BLEEDING

CRACKS IN CONCRETE DELAYEDCURING

BEFORE FORMWORK
HARDENING MOVEMENT

EXCESSVIBRATION
CONSTRUCTIONAL
SUBGRADE
EARLY FROST SETTLEMENT
DAMAGE
FINISHING

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 CEMENT

UNSOUND MATERIALS AGGREGATES

LONG TERMDRYING EXCESS SILT, MUD &

SHRINKAGE DUST

HEAT OFHYDRATION

EXTERNAL
TEMPERATURE

CRACKS IN CONCRETE
THERMAL JOINTS IN CONCRETE

MOISTURE ELEVATED
AFTERHARDENING MOVEMENTS TEMPERATURE

TRANSITION ZONE FREEZING & THAWING

BIOLOGICAL SULPHATEATTACK

STRUCTURAL DESIGN ALKALI-AGGREGATE

DEFICIENCIES REACTION

ACIDATTACK

CHEMICAL

SEAWATER
CORROSION OF
REINFORCEMENT
CARBONATION

CHLORIDEATTACK

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DESIGN & DETAILING
ERRORS
A deviation from the plans and specifications
Responsibility of owner, designer and contractor

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 CAUSES
■ Accuracy of drawings
■ Number of design omissions and ambiguities
■ Inadequacy withinplans and specifications
■ Quality of facility

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TYPES OFDESIGN
ERRORS

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 TYPES OF DESIGN ERRORS
1. Inadequate Structural Design
2. Poor Design Details
A. Abrupt Changes in Section
B. Insufficient Reinforcement at Corners and Openings
C. Inadequate Provision forDeflection
D. Inadequate Provision forDrainage
E. InsufficientTravel in Expansion Joints
F. Incompatibility of Materials
G. Neglect ofCreep Effect
H. Rigid Joints Between Precast Units
I. Unanticipated Shear Stresses in Piers, Columns, orAbutments
J. Inadequate Joint Spacing in Slabs

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 1. INADEQUATE STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
■ CAUSES
– Due to inadequate structural design the
concrete is exposed to greater stress than
it can handle or strain in concrete
increases more than its strain capacity and
fails
■ SYMPTOMS
– Spalling of concrete due to high
compressive strength
– Cracking of concrete due to torsion and
shear stress
■ PREVENTION
– Thorough review of all design calculations
– Careful review of rehabilitation methods,
if any

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 2. POOR DESIGNDETAILS
■ CAUSES
– Localised concentration of high stresses in structural members
■ SYMPTOMS
– Cracking of concrete that allows water or chemicals to pass through concrete
– Seepagethrough structural members
– Structural failure
■ PREVENTION
– Thorough and careful review of all design calculations

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 2B. INSUFFICIENT
2A. ABRUPTCHANGES REINFORCEMENT AT
IN SECTION CORNERS AND
OPENINGS
■ SYMPTOMS ■ CAUSES
– Cracking because ofstress – Increased stressconcentration
concentrations at corners
■ PREVENTION ■ SYMPTOMS
– Use of relatively thin sections – Cracking of concrete
rigidly tied into massive
■ PREVENTION
sections or patches and
replacement concrete that are – Provide additional
not uniform in plan dimensions reinforcement inareas where
stress concentrations are
expected to occur

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 2C. INADEQUATE 2B. INADEQUATE
PROVISION FOR PROVISION FOR
DEFLECTION DRAINAGE
■ CAUSES ■ CAUSES
– Loading of members or sections – Ponding of water caused by
poor attention to details of
beyond the capacities for which draining
they weredesigned
– Saturation resulting inseverely
■ SYMPTOMS damaged concrete in an area
subjected to freezing and
– Cracking of walls or partitions thawing
due to loadings
■ SYMPTOMS
– Leakage may result in damage
to the interior structure
– Staining and encrustationson
the structure

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 2E. INSUFFICIENT
TRAVEL IN EXPANSION 2F. INCOMPATIBILITYOF
JOINTS MATERIALS

■ CAUSES ■ CAUSES
– Inadequately designed expansion
joints – The use of materials with
different properties (modulusof
■ SYMPTOMS
elasticity or coefficient of
– Spalling of concrete adjacent to
the joints thermal expansion) adjacent to
one another
■ PREVENTION
– The full range of possible ■ SYMPTOMS
temperature differentials that a – Cracking or spalling as the
concrete may be expected to
experience should be takeninto structure is loaded or as it is
account in the specification for subjected to daily or annual
expansion joints temperature variations

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 2H. RIGID JOINTS
2G. NEGLECT OF CREEP BETWEEN PRECAST
EFFECT UNITS
■ CAUSES ■ SYMPTOMS
– Inadequate provisionfor – Cracking orspalling
deflections
■ PREVENTION
– Neglect of creep in pre-stressed
– Designs utilizing precast
concrete members may lead to
elements must provide for
excessive prestress loss
movement betweenadjacent
■ SYMPTOMS precast elements or between
– Cracking as loads areapplied theprecast elements and the
supporting frame

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 2I. UNANTICIPATED
SHEAR STRESSESIN 2J. INADEQUATE JOINT
PIERS, COLUMNS, OR SPACING IN SLABS
ABUTMENTS
■ CAUSES ■ SYMPTOMS
– Lack of maintenance – Cracking of slabs-on-grade
– Freezing of expansion bearing
assembles causing horizontal
loading to be transferred to the
concrete elements supporting
the bearings
■ SYMPTOMS
– Cracking of concrete
– Entry of water into the
concrete

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 BLUE TSHUMI INSUFFICIENT TRAVEL IN EXPANSION
ABRUPT CHANGE IN SECTION JOINTS

INSUFFICIENT INADEQUATE PROVISION FOR INADEQUATE PROVISION FOR

REINFORCEMENTAT DEFLECTION DRAINAGE
CORNERS ANDOPENINGS
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 CONSTRUCTION
ERRORS
Mistakes or inadequacies in a structure's own construction damage it partly
or completely

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 CAUSES
■ May occur due to failure to follow specified procedures and good practice or outright
carelessness
■ May not lead to failure or deterioration of concrete
■ May have adverse impact on the structure with time

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 TYPESOF
CONSTRUCTION ERRORS

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 TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION ERRORS
1. AddingWater to Concrete 6. Movement of Formwork
2. ImproperAlignment of Formwork 7. Premature Removal of Shores or
3. ImproperConsolidation or Reshores
Compaction ofConcrete 8. Settling ofConcrete
A. Bug Holes
9. Settling of the Subgrade
B. Honeycombing
C. Over-consolidation 10. Vibration of Freshly Placed
Concrete
4. ImproperCuring
5. Improper Locationof 11. Improper Finishing of Flat Concrete
Reinforcement Steel Surface

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 1.ADDING WATER TO CONCRETE
CAUSES EFFECTS

Addition of water to the • Concrete with

concrete in a delivery lowered strength
truck to increase slump and reduced
and decrease pouringor durability
placement effort
• W/c ratio of the
concrete increases,
the strength and
durability will
decrease
Water is commonly Scaling, crazing, and
added during finishing dusting ofthe concrete
of structuralmember

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 2. IMPROPER ALIGNMENT OF
FORMWORK
■ EFFECTS
– Discontinuities on the surface of the concrete
 These discontinuities are unsightly in all circumstances
 Their occurrence may be more critical in areas that are subjected to high velocity flow
of water, where cavitation-erosion may be induced, or in lock chambers where the
“rubbing” surfaces mustbe straight

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 3. IMPROPER CONSOLIDATION OR
COMPACTION OF CONCRETE
■ EFFECTS
– Improper compaction of concrete may result in a variety of defects, the most
common being bug holes, honeycombing, and cold joints

BUGHOLES HONEYCOMBING OVER-

CONSOLIDATION

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 3A 3B 3C
BUG HOLES HONEYCOMBING OVER-CONSOLIDATION

These are formed when These can be reduced by It is usually defined asa
small pockets of air or inserting the vibrator situation in which the
water are trapped against more frequently, and as consolidation effort
close as possible to the causes all of the coarse
the forms. form face without aggregate to settle to the
A change in the mixture touching the form, and bottom while the paste
to make it less “sticky” or slower withdrawal of the rises tothe surface. If this
the use of small vibrators vibrator. situation occurs, it is
reasonable to conclude
worked near the form has Obviously, any or all of that there is a problem of
been used to help these defects make it
a poorly proportioned
eliminate bugholes. much easier for any concrete rather than too
damage-causing much consolidation.
mechanism to initiate
deterioration of the
concrete.

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 4. IMPROPER CURING
Curing is probably the most abused aspect of the concrete construction process. Unless
concrete is given adequate time to cure at a proper humidity and temperature, it will not
develop the characteristics that are expected and that are necessary to provide durability.
■ SYMPTOMS
– Various types of cracking and surface disintegration
– Failure to achieve anticipated concrete strengths, structural cracking may occur

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 5. IMPROPER LOCATION OF
REINFORCING STEEL
■ CAUSE
– This section refers to reinforcing steel that is improperly located or is not adequately
secured in theproper location
■ EFFECTS
– First, the steel may not function structurally as intended, resulting in structural
cracking or failure. E.g.is the placement of welded wire mesh in floor slabs. In many
cases, the mesh ends up on the bottom of the slab which will subsequently crack
because the steel is not in the proper location

– The second type of problem stemming from improperly located or tied reinforcing
steel is one of durability. The tendency seems to be for the steel to end up near the
surface of the concrete. As the concrete cover over the steel is reduced, it is much
easier for corrosion to begin

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 6. MOVEMENT OF FORMWORK
■ CAUSE
– Movement of formwork during the period while the concrete is going from a fluid
to a rigid material may induce cracking and separation within the concrete
■ EFFECTS
– A crack open to the surface will allow access of water to the interior of the
concrete.
– An internal void may give rise to freezing or corrosion problems if the void
becomes saturated

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7. PREMATURE REMOVAL OF SHORES
OR RESHORES
■ CAUSE
– If shores or reshores are removed too soon, the concrete affected may become
overstressed and cracked
■ EFFECTS
– In extreme cases there may be major failures

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 8. SETTLING OF THE CONCRETE
■ CAUSE
– During the period between placing and initial setting of the concrete, the heavier
components of the concrete will settle under the influence of gravity
– This situation may be aggravated by the use of highly fluid concretes
■ EFFECTS
– If any restraint tends to prevent this settling, cracking or separations may result.
– These cracks or separations may also develop problems of corrosion or freezing if
saturated

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 9. SETTLING OF THE SUBGRADE
■ CAUSE
– Settling of the subgrade during the period after the concrete begins to become
rigid but before it gains enough strength to support its own weight
■ EFFECTS
– Cracking may alsooccur
– Sags and Humps (Localized Depressions) may occur

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 10.VIBRATION OF FRESHLY PLACED
CONCRETE
■ CAUSE
– Most construction sites are subjected to vibration from various sources, such as
blasting, pile driving, and from the operation of construction equipment. Freshly
placed concrete is vulnerable to weakening of its properties.
■ EFFECTS
– If subjected to forces, concrete matrix may disrupt during setting

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 11. IMPROPER FINISHING OF FLAT
CONCRETE SURFACE
A. Adding water to the surface: Evidence that water is being added to the surface is the
presence of a large paint brush, along with other finishing tools. The brush is dipped in
water and water is “slung” onto the surface being finished.
B. Timing of finishing: Final finishing operations must be done after the concrete has
taken its initial set and bleeding has stopped. The waiting period depends on the
amounts of water, cement, and admixtures in the mixture but primarily on the
temperature of the concrete surface. On a partially shaded slab, the part in the sun
will usually be ready to finish before the part in the shade.

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 11. IMPROPER FINISHING OF FLAT
CONCRETE SURFACE
C. Adding cement to the surface: This practice is often done to dry up bleed water to
allow finishing to proceed and will result in a thin cement-rich coating which will craze
or flake offeasily.
D. Use of tamper: A tamper or “jitterbug” is unnecessarily used on many jobs.This tool
forces the coarse aggregate away from the surface and can make finishing easier.This
practice, however, creates a cement-rich mortar surface layer which can scale or
craze. A jitterbug should not be allowed with a well designed mixture. If a harsh
mixture must be finished, the judicious use of a jitterbug could be useful.
E. Jointing:The most frequent cause of cracking in flatwork is the incorrect spacing and
location of joints.

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 IMPROPER FINISHING OF FLAT IMPROPER CURING- PLASTICSHRINKAGE
CONCRETESURFACE

MOVEMENT OFFORMWORK SETTLING OFCONCRETE SETTLING OFSUBGRADE

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 EFFECT OF DESIGNAND
CONSTRUCTION ERRORS
ON REPAIR&
REHABILITATION

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S.NO. DESIGN ERRORS REPAIR & REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES

• Plate Bonding Method

• RCJacketing of beams & columns with RCC
1. Inadequate Structural Design
• Strengthening by Fibre ReinforcedPolymer
(FRP)

• RCJacketing
2. Poor Design Details
• Increase in longitudinal reinforcement

• Providing struts for span reduction of beam

2A Abrupt Changes inSection
• Concrete strengthening

• Installing Ferro-cement plates at corners

Insufficient Reinforcement at Corners and
2B • Providing vertical reinforcement atcorners,
Openings
junction of walls

2C Inadequate Provision for Deflection Rebuilding portions of thewall

• Fixing of drainage pipes

• Drainage of sloped roof with tiles
2D Inadequate Provision for Drainage
• Waterproofing
• Correction of floor leaks & traps

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S.NO. DESIGN ERRORS REPAIR & REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES

2E Insufficient travel in expansionjoints Repair or replace expansionjoints

• Grout injection
• Concrete ring beams & roof & floor
2F Incompatibility of materials
substitution
• Bond coats

• Bed Joints ReinforcementTechnique

2G Neglect of Creep Effect
• Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composite(CFRP)

2H Rigid Joints Between PrecastUnits Shear Keys/ Mechanical Anchors

• Cutting new expansion joints, jacking

structure, isolation bearings, removalof
Unanticipated Shear Stresses in Piers,Columns, portions of structure
2I
or Abutments • Providing struts for span reduction of beam
• Reducing dead loads and live loads

• External stressing
2J Inadequate Joint Spacing inSlabs • FRPMethod
• Plate Bonding

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S.NO. CONSTRUCTION ERRORS REPAIR & REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES

• Epoxy Coating (Epoxy Resin +Hardener)

1. Adding Water to Concrete • Polymer Resin basedCoating
• Shotcrete/ Gunite

• Shear Keys
2. Improper Alignment ofFormwork • Preformed FoamGaskets
• Cast In PlaceFoam
Improper Consolidation or Compaction of
3 Fibre Reinforced Concrete
Concrete
3A Bug Holes Epoxy Resin

• Polymer Modified Cement Mortar(PMM)

• Polyester Putty
3B Honeycombing • Epoxy putty
• Emulsified Styrene Butadiene Rubber(SBR)
Polymer

• Polymer Modified Cement Mortar(PMM)

3C Over-consolidation • Polymer Modified Concrete(PMC)
• Epoxy Resin

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S.NO. CONSTRUCTION ERRORS REPAIR & REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES

• Elastomeric sealer
• ‘Flexible’ epoxy filler
4. Improper Curing • Membrane or specialmortar
• Strengthening by Fibre ReinforcedPolymer
(FRP)

• Introducing new reinforcement barsfor

5. Improper Location ofReinforcement Steel structural connections
• Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) for durability

• Coarse aggregate and grout

• Dry-pack
6. Movement of Formwork
• Waterproofing by Acrylic Polymer or SBR
Polymer

• Cutting new expansion joints, jacking

structure, isolation bearings, removalof
7. Premature Removal ofShores or Reshores
portions of structure
• Caulking for livecracks

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S.NO. CONSTRUCTION ERRORS REPAIR & REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES

• Fusion Bonded Epoxy PowderCoatings

(FBEC)
• Cathodic Protection
8. Settling of The Concrete • Chloride Removal
• Realkalisation
• Epoxy
• FRPStrengthening

• Patching with BaseRepair

9. Settling ofThe Subgrade • Overlay Patches
• Grader Patching
• Fibre Reinforced Concrete(FRC)
10. Vibration ofFreshly Placed Concrete • Re-concreting
• Hardened Cement Paste(HCP)
• Polymer Modified Cement Mortar(PMM)
with BondCoat
11. Improper Finishing of Flat Concrete Surface • Shotcrete with Finishing Plaster and Water
Curing
• Polyurethane Coat

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 CONCLUSION
■ A structure, if regularly maintained, will not need extensive repair and rehabilitation
and the cost of the same would also go down.
■ Design errors' onset is during the stage of planning. These can be prevented by careful
and thorough inspection of drawing at each stage.
■ Construction errors' commence during the stage of execution and can be controlled by
inspection, excepting when environmental factors govern the error.
■ Even after the identification of repair/rehabilitation method, it is significant to know
the specifications of the materials to be used, so that these can be altered depending
upon the need.

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 REFERENCES
■ http://theconstructor.org/concrete/design-detailing-errors-concrete-construction/8190/
■ http://theconstructor.org/concrete/construction-errors-during-concreting-at-site/8184/
■ http://nairaproject.com/projects/080.html
■ Concrete Problems & RepairTechniques- Professor KhaledA. Soudki, Peng
■ CPWD Handbook on Repair & Rehabilitation of RCCBuildings
■ Repair & Rehabilitation of Structures- Prof. M. Vijayalakshmi
■ WSDOT Maintenance Manual- Chapter 3- Page 3to 28

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