DJM3063

DIGITAL SYSTEM

CHAPTER 6
CONVERTERS

LECTURER:
PUAN NURHANUM BINTI OMAR
 STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this class, student should be able to:

 Explain the Digital Analogue Converter (DAC).

- Use of DAC.
- Circuits that convert digital signals to analogue signals.
a. Resistive Divider circuit.
b. Binary Ladder circuit.
- Operations of the circuits.
 ANALOGUE & DIGITAL SIGNAL
Analog signals – directly measurable quantities in terms of some other quantity.
Examples:
• Thermometer – mercury height rises as temperature rises
• Car Speedometer – Needle moves farther right as you accelerate
• Stereo – Volume increases as you turn the knob.

Digital Signals – have only two states.

For digital computers, we refer to binary states, 0 and 1. “1” can be on, “0” can be off.
Examples:
• Light switch can be either on or off
• Door to a room is either open or closed

Video\6. Converter\Comparing Analog & Digital Signal.swf

 DIGITAL ANALOGUE CONVERTER
• In an electronic circuit, a combination of high voltage (+5V) and low voltage (0V) is
usually used to represent a binary number.
• For example, a binary number 1010 is represented by:

Weighting 23 22 21 20

Binary Digit 1 0 1 0

State +5V 0V +5V 0V

• DACs are electronic circuits that convert digital (usually binary) signals (for example
1000100) to analog electrical quantities (usually voltage) directly related to the digitally
encoded input number.

Video\6. Converter\Digital to Analog Converter.swf

DIGITAL ANALOGUE CONVERTER

Illustration of ADC and DAC process

 DIGITAL ANALOGUE CONVERTER

Block diagram of DAC Signal type

DIGITAL ANALOGUE CONVERTER

APPLICATIONS OF DAC

Audio Video
 DIGITAL ANALOGUE CONVERTER
APPLICATIONS OF DAC

Digital Audio
Motor Controllers
CD Players
Cruise Control
MP3 Players
Valve Control
Digital telephone/Answering
Motor Control
machines

Oscilloscopes – Digital & Analog

Signal generators
CIRCUITS TO CONVERT DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE SIGNALS

RESISTIVE DIVIDER CIRCUIT /

R-2R LADDER CIRCUIT
BINARY WEIGHTED RESISTOR
 RESISTIVE DIVIDER CIRCUIT
• One method of the D/A conversion uses a resistor network with resistance values that
represent the binary weights of the input bits of the digital code.
• Each of the input resistors will either have current or have no current, depending on
the input voltage level.
• If the input voltage is zero (binary 0), the current is also zero.
• If the input voltage is HIGH (binary 1), the amount of current depends on the input
resistor value and is different for each input resistor.
 RESISTIVE DIVIDER CIRCUIT

Rf = R

I i

R 2R 4R 8R Vo

MSB

LSB

-VREF
4-bit DAC Resistive Divider Circuit
 BINARY REPRESENTATION
Rf = R

I i

Vo
Most R 2R 4R 8R
Significant Bit

Least
Significant Bit
-VREF
 BINARY REPRESENTATION

SET CLEARED
Most
Significant Bit

Least
Significant Bit
-VREF

( 1 1 1 1 )2 = ( 15 )10
 RESISTIVE DIVIDER CIRCUIT

Rf = R
• “Weighted Resistors” based
on bit
• Reduces current by a factor of I i

2 for each bit

Vo
R 2R 4R 8R
MSB

LSB

-VREF
 RESISTIVE DIVIDER CIRCUIT

• Result:
 B3 B2 B1 B0 
 I  VREF  R  2 R  4 R  8R 
 B2 B1 B0 
VOUT  I  R f  VREF  B3    
 2 4 8 

Bi = Value of Bit i
 RESISTIVE DIVIDER CIRCUIT

• More Generally:
Bi
VOUT  VREF  n i 1
2
 VREF  Digital Value  Resolution
Bi = Value of Bit i
n = Number of Bits
 RESISTIVE DIVIDER CIRCUIT
• The circuit in above figure is a digital to analog converter circuit of resistors 4-bit binary
weights.
• We can calculate the resistor values using the weight of binary numbers.
• For example, the most high-value resistor (150 kΩ = R1) is a digital input resistor, the
smallest bit (least significant bit), and the values of the other resistor are:
Rf = R
𝑅1 150𝑘Ω
𝑅2 =
21
=
2
= 75𝑘Ω Bit 21 I i

V
𝑅1 150𝑘Ω R 2R 4R 8R
𝑅3 = = = 37.5𝑘Ω Bit 22 o
22 4 MSB

𝑅1 150𝑘Ω
𝑅4 = = = 18.75𝑘Ω Bit 23 LSB
23 8
-VREF
 RESISTIVE DIVIDER CIRCUIT
• Now we will analyze the circuit to get the output, Vout for a number of digital input.
i. Binary input = 1000. Rf = R
R1 = 150 kΩ, RF = 20 kΩ,
The gain of the voltage (AV) = RF / R1 = 0.133 I i

Vout = Vref x AV = 3 V X 0.133 = 0.4V V

R 2R 4R 8R
MSB o
ii. Binary input = 0110
R2 = 75 kΩ, R3 = 37.5 kΩ,
LSB
RT = (R2 R3 partially parallel) = 25 kΩ .
-VREF

• Av = 20 kΩ/25 kΩ = 0.8,
• Vout = Vref x Av = 3V x 0.8 = 2.4V or Rin = Vout = Vref and RF resistance.
• Vout can found by substituting the resistance values of the total
amount of resistance when certain binary input.
 BINARY INPUT
Decimal Vout (V)
D C B A
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0.4
2 0 0 1 0 0.8
3 0 0 1 1 1.2
4 0 1 0 0 1.6
5 0 1 0 1 2.0
6 0 1 1 0 2.4
7 0 1 1 1 2.8
8 1 0 0 0 3.2
9 1 0 0 1 3.6
10 1 0 1 0 4.0
11 1 0 1 1 4.4
12 1 1 0 0 4.8
13 1 1 0 1 5.2
14 1 1 1 0 5.6
15 1 1 1 1 6.0
 RESISTIVE DIVIDER CIRCUIT
Exercise 1
By assuming the input ‘low’ is 0 V and ‘high’ is 5 V, determine the output of DAC if the input data
is:
10 k
i. 1111 200 k
D0
ii. 1101
D1 100 k
iii. 0101 -

iv. 1001 D2 50 k Output

+

v. 0010 D3 25 k

Solution:
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑥𝑉 + 𝑥𝑉 + 𝑥𝑉 + 𝑥𝑉
𝑅0 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
i. If data 1111
10𝑘Ω 10𝑘Ω 10𝑘Ω 10𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑥5 + 𝑥5 + 𝑥5 + 𝑥5
200𝑘Ω 100𝑘Ω 50𝑘Ω 25𝑘Ω
= 0.25 + 0.5 + 1 + 2
= 3.75 V
 RESISTIVE DIVIDER CIRCUIT
Solution:
ii. If data 1101
10𝑘Ω 10𝑘Ω 10𝑘Ω 10𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑥5 + 𝑥0 + 𝑥5 + 𝑥5
200𝑘Ω 100𝑘Ω 50𝑘Ω 25𝑘Ω
= 0.25 + 0 + 1 + 2
= 3.25 V

iii. If data 0101

10𝑘Ω 10𝑘Ω 10𝑘Ω 10𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑥5 + 𝑥0 + 𝑥5 + 𝑥0
200𝑘Ω 100𝑘Ω 50𝑘Ω 25𝑘Ω
= 0.25 + 0 + 1 + 0
= 1.25 V

iv. If data 1001 = 2.25 V

v. If data 0010 = 0.5 V
 RESISTIVE DIVIDER CIRCUIT
Exercise 2
It is the DA converter with voltages output. Digital inputs: 0 V or 5 V.
Find:
i. Vout if data in 11012 2.5 k
ii. Step size D 5 k
iii. Full scale voltage C 10 k
-
iv. Percentage of resolution Output
B 20 k +

Solution: A 40 k

i. Vout if data in 11012

𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑥𝑉 + 𝑥𝑉 + 𝑥𝑉 + 𝑥𝑉
𝑅𝐷 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐴
2.5𝑘Ω 2.5𝑘Ω 2.5𝑘Ω 2.5𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑥 5 + 𝑥5 + 𝑥0 + 𝑥5
5𝑘Ω 10𝑘Ω 20𝑘Ω 40𝑘Ω
= 2.5 + 1.25 + 0 + 0.3125
= 4.0625 V
 RESISTIVE DIVIDER CIRCUIT
Solution:
ii. Step size
𝑅𝑓 2.5𝑘Ω
𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 𝑥𝑉 = 𝑥 5 = 0.3125 𝑉
𝑅𝐴 40𝑘Ω

iii. Full scale voltage → input 1111

2.5𝑘Ω 2.5𝑘Ω 2.5𝑘Ω 2.5𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑓𝑠 = 𝑥5 + 𝑥5 + 𝑥5 + 𝑥5
5𝑘Ω 10𝑘Ω 20𝑘Ω 40𝑘Ω
= 2.5 + 1.25 + 0.625 + 0.3125
= 4.6875 V

iv. Percentage of resolution

𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
% 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100
𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
0.3125 𝑉
= 𝑥 100
4.6875 𝑉
= 6.67%
 RESISTIVE DIVIDER CIRCUIT
Exercise 3
Figure shows a 4-bit DAC. If Vref = 10 V, find:
i. Vout, for Vin = 1111 1 k
D 1 k
ii. Converter step size
C 2 k
-

B 4 k Output
+

Solution: A 8 k
i. Vout if data in 1111
1 1 1 1 1 𝑅𝑓 1𝑘Ω
= + + + 𝐴𝑣 = = = 1.37
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝐷 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝑇 727.3Ω
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑥 𝐴𝑣 = 10𝑉 𝑥 1.37 = 13.7 𝑉
𝑅𝑇 1𝑘Ω 2𝑘Ω 4𝑘Ω 8𝑘Ω
RT = 727.3 Ω
 RESISTIVE DIVIDER CIRCUIT
Solution:
ii. Converter step size

Converter step size = LSB bit input

So that, binary input is 0001 = RA = 8kΩ

𝑅𝑓 1𝑘Ω
𝐴𝑣 = = = 0.125
𝑅𝐴 8𝑘Ω
∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑥 𝐴𝑣 = 10𝑉 𝑥 0.125 = 1.25 𝑉
 RESISTIVE DIVIDER CIRCUIT
ADVANTAGES
• Simple Construction/Analysis
• Fast Conversion

DISADVANTAGES
• Requires large range of resistors (2000:1 for 12-bit DAC) with necessary high
precision for low resistors
• Requires low switch resistances in transistors
• Can be expensive. Therefore, usually limited to 8-bit resolution.
 R-2R LADDER CIRCUIT
• This circuit is different from binary up a resistor DAC circuit because it only uses two
resistor values, R and 2R.
• R-2R circuit is used more often to get high accuracy and precision
• Disadvantage that we can see is too much of the resistor to be provided.
• For example, if 12-bit DAC with resistor value MSB, then it is 1kΩ resistor will exceed
2MΩ LSB.
• One method of analyzing this circuit is to find a resolution for this circuit.
• The resolution [full-scale resolution] for this circuit is the Vref / 3 i.e. by setting input
012 = 110.
• Full scale output of the circuit is by setting the input will produce 112 = 310 = Vout.
• Then the general expression for the circuit is Vout =
𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇 𝑹𝒇
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒙 𝑩𝒊𝒏 𝒙
𝟐𝒏 −𝟏 𝑹
where n = number of bits and 𝐵𝑖𝑛= digital input converted to decimal numbers.
 R-2R LADDER CIRCUIT
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅𝑓
a) When input 012 = 110, Vout =
4 𝑅
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅𝑓
b) When input 102 = 210, Vout =
2 𝑅
3𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅𝑓
c) When input 112 = 310, Vout =
4 𝑅
We can get the general equation for output as:
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅𝑓 3𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅𝑓
Vout = V00 + V01 + V10 +V11 = 0 + + +
4 𝑅 2 𝑅 4 𝑅
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅𝑓
Vout = [0+1+2+3]
4 𝑅

In conclusion, from what we have to prove from the

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅𝑓
analysis on the circuit, the output Vout = Bin
2n 𝑅
where n = number of bits
Bin = binary input that has been converted to
decimal.
 BINARY INPUT Vout (V)
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅𝑓 5 𝑅 5
D C B A Vout = Bin = 24 Bin = 16 Bin
2n 𝑅 𝑅
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0.3125
0 0 1 0 0.6250
0 0 1 1 0.9375
0 1 0 0 1.2500
0 1 0 1 1.5625
0 1 1 0 1.8750
0 1 1 1 2.1875
1 0 0 0 2.500
1 0 0 1 2.8125
1 0 1 0 3.1250
1 0 1 1 3.4375
1 1 0 0 3.75
1 1 0 1 4.0625
1 1 1 0 4.375
1 1 1 1 4.6875
 R-2R LADDER CIRCUIT
ADVANTAGES
• Only two resistor values (R and 2R)
• Does not require high precision resistors

DISADVANTAGES
• Lower conversion speed than binary weighted DAC
 PROS AND CONS

BINARY WEIGHTED R-2R

• Only 2 resistor values

• Easier implementation
PROS • Easily understood
• Easier to manufacture
• Faster response time
• Limited to ~ 8 bits
• Large # of resistors
CONS • Susceptible to noise • More confusing analysis
• Expensive
• Greater Error
SPECIFICATION FOR DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERTER

RESOLUTION
• Defined as the smallest change achieved in the analogue output as a result of changes
in digital input.
1
% 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = − 𝑥 100
2𝑛 1

𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
= 𝑥 100
𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

where n = number of input bits

2n – 1 = number of steps
SPECIFICATION FOR DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERTER

STEP SIZE Linearity (Ideal)

• Ideally, a DAC should produce a linear
relationship between the digital input

Analog Output Signal

and analog output.
• Resolution can be expressed in two
cases, either the voltage or Ampere and
also percent also known as the step size. 0000 0001 0010 0011
Digital Input Signal
0100 0101

• Step size is the ratio of full scale with the

Non-Linearity
total number of steps.

Analog Output Signal

FULL SCALE VOLTAGE
• Maximum output voltage.
0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101
Digital Input Signal
SPECIFICATION FOR DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERTER
Exercise 4
Digital to analogue converter 10-bit with step size 10 mV. Search for full-scale voltage
and percent resolution.

Solution:
Number of bits = 10
Number of step size = 210 – 1 = 1023 steps
Thus, the full-scale output voltage = 10 mV x 1023 = 10.23 V

𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 100𝑚𝑉

% 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 𝑥 100 = 0.1%
𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 10.23 𝑉
OR
1 1
% 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 𝑥 100 = 0.1%
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 1023
 QUIZ
1. The ____________ ( A/D, D/A ) converter translates from analog voltage to binary
value.

2. A D/A converter consists of a ____________ network and a summing

__________.

3. In a resistive divider DAC, the resistors on the inputs

a. determine the amplitude of the analog signal
b. determine the weights of the digital inputs
c. limit the power consumption
d. prevent loading on the source
 QUIZ
4. Each resistor value in a resistive divider DAC is
a. the same as the other values.
b. half of the feedback resistor
c. twice the value of the next lowest value resistor
d. half the value of the next lowest value resistor

5. In a binary ladder DAC, there are

a. four values of resistors
b. one resistor value
c. two resistor values
d. a number of resistor values equal to the number of inputs
 STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this class, student should be able to:

 Explain the Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC).

- Use of ADC.
- Block diagram of a Digital-Ramp A/D converter
- Operation of a Digital-Ramp A/D converter
- Block diagram of a Successive Approximation A/D Converter
- Differences between a Digital-Ramp A/D Converter and a
Successive Approximation A/D Converter.
 ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERTER

• An analogue-to-digital converter is a special type of encoder.

• The A/D conversion process is generally more complex and time-consuming than the
D/A process, and many different methods have been developed and used.
• We shall examine several of these methods in detail. Among them are a digital-ramp
method and a successive approximation method.

Video\6. Converter\Analog & Digital Converter.swf

EXAMPLES OF ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERTER

• Microphones
- take your voice varying pressure waves in the air and convert them into varying
electrical signals
• Strain Gages
- determines the amount of strain (change in dimensions) when a stress is applied
• Thermocouple
- temperature measuring device converts thermal energy to electric energy
• Voltmeters
• Digital Multimeters
 JUST WHAT DOES AN A/D CONVERTER DO?

• Converts analog signals into binary words

 ADC BASIC PRINCIPLE

• The basic principle of operation is to use the comparator principle to determine

whether or not to turn on a particular bit of the binary number output.
• It is typical for an ADC to use a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) to determine one of
the inputs to the comparator.
• ADC Various Approaches
a. Digital-Ramp ADC
b. Successive Approximation ADC
 DIGITAL-RAMP ADC

• The digital-ramp method of A/D

conversion is also known as the stair
step-ramp or the counter method.
• It employs a DAC and a binary
counter to generate the digital value
of an analogue input.
• Figure below illustrates the block
diagram of this type of converter.
• It contains a counter, a DAC, an
analogue comparator, and a control
AND gate.
 DIGITAL-RAMP ADC
Exercise 5
Assume the following values for an 8-bit digital ramp ADC:
Clock frequency = 10 MHz, DAC full scale voltage = 2.56 V
Compute the following value:
i. The digital equivalent obtained for VA = 1.5 V (4 marks)
ii. The conversion time (2 marks)
iii. The resolution of the converter (3 marks)

Solution:
i. The digital equivalent obtained for VA = 1.5 V

𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 2.56 𝑉 2.56 𝑉

𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = − = = = 10 𝑚𝑉
2𝑛 1 28 −1 255

1.5 𝑉
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠 = = 150 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠
10 𝑚𝑉

So, digital equivalent obtained for VA = 150 steps = 1001 0110

 DIGITAL-RAMP ADC
Solution:
ii. The conversion time
1 1
𝑇𝑐 = 𝑥 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓. 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠 = 𝑥 150 = 15𝜇𝑠
𝑓 10 𝑀𝐻𝑧

ii. The resolution of the converter

𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 10 𝑚𝑉
% 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100 = 0.39%
𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 2.56 𝑉
 SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION ADC

Block diagram
• The successive-approximation converter is
one of the most widely used types of A/D
converter.
• It has more complex circuitry than the
digital ramp A/D converter but a much
shorter conversion time.
• In addition, successive approximation
converters (SAC) have a fixed value of
conversion time that is not dependent on
the value of the analogue input.
 SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION ADC

• The input bits of the DAC are enabled (made equal to 1) one at a time, starting with
the MSB.
• As each bit is enabled, the comparator produces an output that indicates whether the
analogue input voltage is greater or less than the output of the DAC.
• If the DAC is greater than the analogue input, the comparator’s output is LOW, causing
the bit of the register to RESET.
• If the output is less than the analogue input, the 1 bit is retained in the register.
• The system does this with the MSB first, then the next most significant bit, then the
next, and so on.
• After all the bits of the DAC have been tried, the conversion cycle is complete.
 SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION ADC

Illustration of 4-bit SAC with 1 volt step size

SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION ADC

• Much faster than the digital ramp ADC

because it uses digital logic to
converge on the value closest to the
input voltage.
• A comparator and a DAC are used in
the process.
 SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION ADC

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Capable of high speed and reliable Higher resolution successive

approximation ADC’s will be slower

Medium accuracy compared to Speed limited to ~5Msps

other ADC types

Good trade off between speed and

cost

Capable of out putting the binary

number in serial (one bit at a time)
format.
 QUIZ

1. An ADC will translate a ____________ input voltage into a ______________

output.

2. List two types of ADC circuit.

3. The successive approximation ADC is ___________ (faster, slower) than digital

ramp type.

4. State the statement whether is true or false:

The conversion time for a SAC increases as the analog voltage increases.