Spatial Theory of Relativity

Unit-III Albert
Einstein

Dr. Vinod Ashokan, NIT Jalandhar

1879: Born in Ulm, Germany.

1901: Worked at Swiss patent office.

Unable to obtain an academic position.

1905: Published 4 famous papers.

Paper on photoelectric effect (Nobel prize).
Paper on Brownian motion.
2 papers on Special Relativity.
Only 26 years old at the time!!

1915: General Theory of Relativity published.

1933: Einstein left Nazi-occupied Germany.

Spent remainder of time at Institute of
Advanced Study in Princeton, NJ.
Attempted to develop unified theory of gravity
and electromagnetism (unsuccessful).
 Space-Time Diagram
Requirement for 4 Dimensions
Definitions:
• Event: characterized by
location (e.g., x,y,z) and time (t) World line
at that location ct

•Space-time diagram: A (ct,x) x

a coordinate system in which O
every point represents an event.
4 dimensions required.
• World line: trajectory of an event in
the space-time diagram
 Einstein’s Postulates
• All inertial frames of reference are equivalent with respect
to the laws of physics
or
• No experiment one can perform in a uniformly moving system
in order to tell whether one is at rest or in a state of uniform
motion. (No dependence on absolute velocity.)

• The speed of light in a vacuum always has the same value c,

independent of the motion of the source or observer.
or
• Nothing can move faster than the speed of light in a vacuum,
which is the same with respect to all inertial frames
Galilean Transformations
time-interval and space-interval measurements made are
absolutes according to the Galilean transformation;

Note: Classical mechanics and the

Galilean transformations imply
that length, mass, and time-the
three basic quantities in
mechanics-are all independent of
the relative motion of the
measurer (or observer).
Newtonʼs second law is invariant under
Galilean Transformation
 Invariance of Maxwellʼs Equations
The electromagnetic wave equation is not invariant
under Galilean Transformation ?
The wave equation for an electric field in a vacuum.
Orient the axes so that the wave travels along the x axis

Evaluate the first derivatives using general

chain rule.
First derivatives: time dependent part.
Second derivative: time dependent part.
 The Full Equation:

Maxwellʼs equation for an electromagnetic wave is not invariant

under a Galilean Transformation. The problem is with the time
dependence.
 Einstein’s Postulates
First Postulate
• All inertial frames of reference are equivalent with respect
to the laws of physics
or
• No experiment one can perform in a uniformly moving system
in order to tell whether one is at rest or in a state of uniform
motion. (No dependence on absolute velocity.)
Second Postulate
• The speed of light in a vacuum always has the same value c,
independent of the motion of the source or observer.
or

• Nothing can move faster than the speed of light in a vacuum,

which is the same with respect to all inertial frames
 Lorentz transformation
(1)

(2)

1. It is linear in x and x’ so that single

event in S corresponds to single event
in frame S’

2 It has the possibility to reduce to GT

Which we know to be correct in the ordenary
mechanics
Solve for t’

In frame S

In frame S’
Solving for x
The complete Lorentz Transformations
Including the inverse (i.e v replaced with
–v; and primes interchanged)
When

For v<<c the set of equations transform into GT

Home Work
 Lorentz transformation preserve
the wave equation

First derivative
Second derivative
Because
The Lorentz Velocity Transformations
In addition to the previous relations, the Lorentz
velocity transformations for u’x, u’y , and u’z can
be obtained by switching primed and unprimed and
changing v to –v:
 Time Dilation and Length Contraction
Consequences of the Lorentz Transformation :

• Time Dilation:
Clocks in S’ run slow with respect to
stationary clocks in S.

• Length Contraction:
Lengths in S’ are contracted with respect
to the same lengths stationary in S.
watching a light flash go by
v

2k
The man on earth sees c =  k
(& agrees with Maxwell)
 watching a light flash go by
v

If the man on the rocket sees c-v,

he disagrees with Maxwell
Do Maxwell’s Eqns only work in
one reference frame?

If so, this would be the rest frame

of the luminiferous Aether.
 If so, the speed of light should
change throughout the year

upstream,
downstream, light moves
light moves 30 km/sec
slower
faster “Aether wind”
Einstein’s hypotheses:

1. The laws of nature are equally valid

in every inertial reference frame.
Including
Maxwell’s eqns

2. The speed of light in empty space is

same for all inertial observers, regard-
less of their velocity or the velocity of
the source of light.
 A world without ether
• For most of the 19th century, physicists thought
that space was permeated by “luminiferous ether”
– this was thought to be necessary for light to propagate
• Michelson and Morley performed an experiment to
measure earth’s velocity through this substance
– first result in 1887
– Michelson was first American to win Nobel Prize in
physics
• Found that light waves don’t bunch up in direction
of earth motion
– shocked the physics world: no ether!!
– speed of light is not measured relative to fixed medium
– unlike sound waves, water waves, etc.
36
 The Michelson-Morley Experiment :
Attempts to Locate the Absolute Frame

No aether wind detected: 1907 Nobel Prize

Expt. Is to test
A typical fringes as observe in
telescope
The cross-stream path
of beam 2 The mirrors
move through the
"ether" at a speed v, the
light moving through the
"ether'" at speed c.
Reflection from the
moving mirror
automatically gives the
cross-stream path. In
the figure v is the
velocity of the
interferometer with
respect to the "ether."
 The calculation of t2 is made in the
ether  2
c t
2

  
 2 

Difference in transit time

Instrument is rotated by 90 degree

Rotation changes the difference by

Using the binomial expansion and dropping terms

higher than the second-order.
Therefore, the rotation should cause a shift in the
fringe pattern, since it changes the phase
relationship between beams 1 and 2.

the period of one vibration is

 the experimental conclusion was that
there was no fringe shift at all.

If the measured speed of light did not depend on the

motion of the observer, all inertial systems would be
equivalent for a propagation of light and there could be
no experimental evidence to indicate the existence of a
unique inertial system, that is, the ether.
 All observers see light flashes go
by them with the same speed

v
No matter how fast
the guy on the rocket
is moving!!
c

Both guys see the light flash

travel with velocity = c
 Even when the light flash is
traveling in an opposite direction

Both guys see the light flash

travel past with velocity = c
 Time Dilation
To understand time dilation the idea of
proper time must be understood:

• The term proper time,T0, is the time

difference between two events occurring
at the same position in a system as
measured by a clock at that position.

Same location (spark “on” then off”)

 Exercise
Q1

Q2
 Solutions
Ans 1

Ans2
Gunfight viewed by observer at rest
He sees both shots
fired simultaneously

Bang
! Bang
!
Viewed by a moving observer
Viewed by a moving observer
He sees cowboy shoot
1st & cowgirl shoot later

Bang
! Bang
!
Viewed by an observer in the
opposite direction
Viewed by a moving observer
He sees cowgirl shoot
1st & cowboy shoot later

Bang
Bang !
!
Time depends of state of motion
of the observer!!

Events that occur simultaneously

according to one observer can occur
at different times for other
observers
Light clock
Seen from the ground
 Events

y (x2,t2)
(x1,t1)
x x

x1 x2 x
t
 Prior to Einstein, everyone agreed
the distance
Same events,between events
different depends
observers
upon the observer, but not the time.
y’ y’
y (x2,t2)
(x1,t1)
x x

(x1’,t1’) (x2’,t2’)
t’ t’
x1’ x1’ dist’ x2’
x’ x’

x1 x2 x
t dist
How are the times seen
by 2 different
observers related?

We can figure this out with

simple HS-level math
( + a little effort)
Catch ball on a rocket ship
Event 2: girl catches the ball

w
v= =4m/s
t
w=4m

t=1s

Event 1: boy throws the ball

 Seen from earth
V0=3m/s
V0=3m/s
Location of the 2
events is different
Elapsed time is
the same w=4m

The ball appears

v0t=3m
to travel faster

d
t=1s v= = 5m/s
t
Flash a light on a rocket ship
Event 2: light flash reaches the girl

w
c=
t0
w
t0

Event 1: boy flashes the light

 How is t related to t0?
t= time on Earth clock t0 = time on moving clock
w
c = (vt)2+w2 c =
t0
t
ct = (vt)2+w2 ct0 = w

(ct)2 = (vt)2+w2

(ct)2 = (vt)2+(ct0)2  (ct)2-(vt)2= (ct0)2  (c2-v2)t2= c2t02

c2 1
 t2 = 2 t 02  t2 = t 02
c – v2 1 – v /c
2 2

1
 t= t
1 – v2/c2 0  t = g t0
this is called g
 Properties of g  1
1 – v2/c2
Suppose v = 0.01c (i.e. 1% of c)

1 1
g = 1 – (0.01c)2/c2 =
1 – (0.01)2c2/c2

1 1 1
g = 1 – (0.01)2 = =
1 – 0.0001 0.9999

g = 1.00005
 Properties of g  1 (cont’d)
1 – v2/c2
Suppose v = 0.1c (i.e. 10% of c)

1 1
g = 1 – (0.1c)2/c2 =
1 – (0.1)2c2/c2

1 1 1
g = 1 – (0.1)2 = =
1 – 0.01 0.99

g = 1.005
 Let’s make a chart
v g =1/(1-v2/c2)
0.01 c 1.00005
0.1 c 1.005
 1
Other values of g  1 – v2/c2

Suppose v = 0.5c (i.e. 50% of c)

1 1
g = 1 – (0.5c)2/c2 =
1 – (0.5)2c2/c2

1 1 1
g = 1 – (0.5)2 = =
1 – (0.25) 0.75

g = 1.15
 Enter into chart
v g =1/(1-v2/c2)
0.01 c 1.00005
0.1 c 1.005
0.5c 1.15
 1
Other values of g  1 – v2/c2

Suppose v = 0.6c (i.e. 60% of c)

1 1
g =1 – (0.6c)2/c2 =
1 – (0.6)2c2/c2

1 1 1
g = 1 – (0.6)2 = =
1 – (0.36) 0.64

g = 1.25
 Back to the chart
v g =1/(1-v2/c2)
0.01 c 1.00005
0.1 c 1.005
0.5c 1.15
0.6c 1.25
 1
Other values of g  1 – v2/c2

Suppose v = 0.8c (i.e. 80% of c)

1 1
g = 1 – (0.8c)2/c2 =
1 – (0.8)2c2/c2

1 1 1
g = 1 – (0.8)2 = =
1 – (0.64) 0.36

g = 1.67
 Enter into the chart
v g =1/(1-v2/c2)
0.01 c 1.00005
0.1 c 1.005
0.5c 1.15
0.6c 1.25
0.8c 1.67
 1
Other values of g  1 – v2/c2

Suppose v = 0.9c (i.e.90% of c)

1 1
g = 1 – (0.9c)2/c2 =
1 – (0.9)2c2/c2

1 1 1
g = 1 – (0.9)2 = =
1 – 0.81 0.19

g = 2.29
 update chart
v g =1/(1-v2/c2)
0.01 c 1.00005
0.1 c 1.005
0.5c 1.15
0.6c 1.25
0.8c 1.67
0.9c 2.29
 1
Other values of g  1 – v2/c2

Suppose v = 0.99c (i.e.99% of c)

1 1
g =1 – (0.99c)2/c2 =
1 – (0.99)2c2/c2

1 1 1
g = 1 – (0.99)2 = =
1 – 0.98 0.02

g = 7.07
 Enter into chart
v g =1/(1-v2/c2)
0.01 c 1.00005
0.1 c 1.005
0.5c 1.15
0.6c 1.25
0.8c 1.67
0.9c 2.29
0.99c 7.07
 1
Other values of g  1 – v2/c2

Suppose v = c

1 1
g = 1 – (c)2/c2 =
1 – c2/c2

1 1 1
g = = =
1 – 12 0 0

g =  Infinity!!!
 1
Other values of g  1 – v2/c2

Suppose v = 1.1c

1 1
g = 1 – (1.1c)2/c2 =
1 – (1.1)2c2/c2

1 1 1
g = 1 – (1.1)2 = =
1-1.21
-0.21

g = ??? Imaginary number!!!

 Complete the chart
v g =1/(1-v2/c2)
0.01 c 1.00005
0.1 c 1.005
0.5c 1.15
0.6c 1.25
0.8c 1.67
0.9c 2.29
0.99c 7.07
1.00c 
Larger than c Imaginary number
Plot results:


Never-never land
1
g
1 – v2/c2

x
x
x x
v=c
Moving clocks run slower
v

t0

t= 1 t0
1 – v /c
2 2

t t = g t0
g >1  t > t0
 Length contraction
v

L0

time=t
L0 = vt

man on Time = t0 =t/g

rocket Length = vt0 =vt/g =L0/g
 Length Contraction

To understand length contraction the idea

of proper length must be understood:

• Let an observer in each system S and S’

have a meter stick at rest in their own
system such that each measures the
same length at rest.
• The length as measured at rest is called
the proper length.
Relativistic length contraction using the LT
 The gamma factor
• Gamma (g) is a measure of how whacked-out relativistic
you are

• When v = 0, g = 1.0
– and things are normal
• At v = 0.6c, g = 1.25
– a little whacky
• At v = 0.8c, g = 1.67
– getting to be funky
• As vc, g
 What does g do?
• Time dilation: clocks on a moving platform appear to tick
slower by the factor g
– at 0.6c, g = 1.25, so moving clock seems to tick off 48 seconds
per minute
– standing on platform, you see the clocks on a fast-moving train
tick slowly: people age more slowly, though to them, all is normal
• Length contraction: moving objects appear to be
“compressed” along the direction of travel by the factor g
– at 0.6c, g = 1.25, so fast meter stick will measure 0.8 m to
stationary observer
– standing on a platform, you see a shorter train slip past, though
the occupants see their train as normal length
 Why don’t we see relativity
every day?
• We’re soooo slow (relative to c), that
length contraction and time dilation don’t
amount to much
– 30 m/s freeway speed has v/c = 10-7
• g = 1.000000000000005
– 30,000 m/s earth around sun has v/c = 10-4
• g = 1.000000005
• but precise measurements see this clearly
Moving objects appear shorter
Length measured when
object is at rest
L = L0/g
g >1  L < L0

V=0.9999c
V=0.86c
V=0.1c
V=0.99c
Length contraction
mass: change in v
F=m0a = m0 time
t0
a time=t0
m0
Ft0
change in v =
m0
Ft0
m0 =
change in v

mass
Ft g Ft0
m= = = g m0 increases!!
change in v change in v
m = g m0
t=gt0
by a factor g
 Relativistic mass increase
m0 = mass of an object when it
is at rest  “rest mass”

mass of a moving g
object increases as vc, m

m = g m0 as an object moves
faster, it gets
harder & harder
to accelerate
by the g factor
v=c
 summary
• Moving clocks run slow

• Moving objects appear shorter

• Moving object’s mass increases

Plot results:


Never-never land
1
g
1 – v2/c2

x
x
x x
v=c
 a-centauri
Twin paradox

Twin brother
& sister

She will travel to

a-centauri (a near-
by star on a special
He will stay home rocket ship v = 0.9c
& study Phys 100
 Light year
distance light travels in 1 year

dist = v x time = c yr

1cyr = 3x108m/s x 3.2x107 s

= 9.6 x 1015 m

We will just use cyr units

& not worry about meters
Time on the boy’s clock

According to the boy

& his clock on Earth:
d0
tout = v = 4.3 cyr = 4.8 yrs
0.9c
d
tback = 0 = 4.3 cyr = 4.8 yrs
v 0.9c
ttotal = tout+tback = 9.6yrs
What does the boy see on her
clock?

According to the boy

her clock runs slower
tout 4.8 yrs
tout= g = = 2.1 yrs
2.3
tback
tback = g = 4.8 yr = 2.1 yrs
2.3
ttotal = tout+tback = 4.2yrs
So, according to the boy:

his clock her clock

out: 4.8yrs 2.1yrs
back: 4.8yrs 2.1yrs
total: 9.6yrs 4.2yrs
 But, according to the
girl, the boy’s clock is
moving &, so, it must be
running slower

According to her, the

boy’s clock on Earth says:

tout 2.1 yrs

tout = g = = 0.9 yrs
2.3
tback 2.1 yrs
tback = = 2.3 = 0.9 yrs
g
ttotal = tout+tback = 1.8yrs
 Her clock advances 4.2 yrs
& she sees his clock advance
only 1.8 yrs,

She should think he has aged

less than her!!
Events in the boy’s life:
As seen by him As seen by her

She leaves
4.8 yrs 0.9 yrs

She arrives
& starts turn
short time ????

Finishes turn
& heads home
4.8 yrs 0.9 yrs

She returns 9.6+ yrs 1.8 + ??? yrs

 turning around as seen by her
According to her, these
2 events occur very,very
far apart from each other

He sees her
He sees her
finish turning
start to turn

Time interval between 2 events depends

on the state of motion of the observer
Gunfight viewed by observer at rest
He sees both shots
fired simultaneously

Bang
! Bang
!
Viewed by a moving observer
Viewed by a moving observer
He sees cowboy shoot
1st & cowgirl shoot later

Bang
! Bang
!
In fact, ???? = 7.8+ years
as seen by him as seen by her
She leaves
4.8 yrs 0.9 yrs

She arrives
& starts turn
short time 7.8+
???yrs

Finishes turn
& heads home
4.8 yrs 0.9 yrs

She returns 9.6+ yrs 1.89.6+

+ ???yrs
yrs
No paradox: both twins agree

The twin that

“turned around”
is younger
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
ENERGY AND MOMENTUM
Classical Approximations
Mass is not a conserved quantity. Particles are created and
destroyed in high-energy collisions. In experiments involving
the collisions of energetic particles, we observe
that kinetic energy may be converted into matter and
matter may be converted into kinetic energy. In this sense,
matter and energy are interchangeable. Neither mass nor
kinetic energy are absolutely conserved.

1 2 inconsistent with the

K .E  mv second postulate of
2 special relativity
Momentum (p) defined as mass times
velocity (mv) is a useful quantity in
classical mechanics because it is
conserved in collisions provided that v « c.
For large speeds, the quantity mv is not
conserved.

If the force acts for a long enough

time, the momentum would increase
without bound
The classical expression does not work
at large speeds.
Relativistic Momentum
We now analyze the collision in the frame S where
particle B is at rest
Relationship of differential time interval

Relativistic momentum to be

or
We shall now verify that the relativistic
momentum is conserved in the collision
 the gamma factor of particle A before the
collision
The total momentum before the collision is

The magnitude of the y component of velocity of

each particle after the collision is
We may calculate the gamma factor for each
particle after the collision from the speed V2
The total momentum after the collision is
 Relativistic Energy
Consider a force acting on a particle, for example, an
electron in an electric field. The kinetic energy of the
particle is given by the expression

where the integration variables p' and v' are

related by
This expression may be integrated by
parts. Using

Integrating, we get
or
 Energy, Mass, and Momentum
The total energy (E) of a particle is defined to be the
sum of the mass and kinetic energies,

The total energy is observed to be conserved in all

particle interactions
Energy and momentum are closely related
because they both contain the factor ym:

The particle speed in terms of energy and

momentum is

Thus, the energy may be written

Solving for E, we arrive at the expression
relating the total energy (E), momentum (P)
and mass (m) of a particle:

For massless particles (m = 0) like the photon, the

energy is related to the momentum by
 Class work

Q1 An electron is accelerated through a potential

difference of 1.00 megavolts. Calculate the
momentum of the electron.

Q2 A massless particle has an energy E. Calculate

the speed of the particle.
Ans 1
Ans 2
 Experimental Confirmation
• We see time dilation in particle lifetimes
– in accelerators, particles live longer at high speed
• their clocks are running slowly as seen by us
• seen daily in particle accelerators worldwide
– cosmic rays make muons in the upper atmosphere
• these muons only live for about 2 microseconds
• if not experiencing time dilation, they would decay before
reaching the ground, but they do reach the ground in
abundance
• We see length contraction of the lunar orbit
– squished a bit in the direction of the earth’s travel around the
sun
• E = mc2 extensively confirmed
– nuclear power/bombs
– sun’s energy conversion mechanism
– bread-and-butter of particle accelerators
Thanks