PETROVIETNAM UNIVERSITY

FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT

CƠ KHÍ

Nguyên tắc cơ bản và ứng dụng

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
AND BASIC CONCEPTS

Instructor: Le Van Sy, PhD, Assoc. Prof

E-mail : [email protected]
 Objectives

• Understand the basic concepts of Fluid Mechanics.

• Recognize the various types of fluid flow problems
encountered in practice.
• Model engineering problems and solve them in a
systematic manner.
• Have a working knowledge of accuracy, precision, and
significant digits, and recognize the importance of
dimensional homogeneity in engineering calculations.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 2

 Summary
 The No-Slip Condition
 A Brief History of Fluid Mechanics
 Classification of Fluid Flows
 Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
 Internal versus External Flow
 Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
 Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
 Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow
 Steady versus Unsteady Flow
 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
 System and Control Volume
 Importance of Dimensions and Units
 Mathematical Modeling of Engineering Problems
 Problem Solving Technique
 Engineering Software Packages
 Accuracy, Precision and Significant Digits
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 3
 1–1 INTRODUCTION

Mechanics: The oldest physical science

that deals with both stationary and moving
bodies under the influence of forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that
deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with
bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science that deals
with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid
statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and
the interaction of fluids with solids or other
fluids at the boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is also
referred to as fluid dynamics by
considering fluids at rest as a special case
of motion with zero velocity.
Fluid mechanics deals with liquids
and gases in motion or at rest.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 4
 INTRODUCTION
Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids
that can be approximated as incompressible (such as
liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds).
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which
deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that
undergo significant density changes, such as the flow
of gases through nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases
(especially air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets,
and automobiles at high or low speeds.
Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal
with naturally occurring flows.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 5

 What is a Fluid?

Fluid: A substance in the liquid or

gas phase.
A solid can resist an applied shear
stress by deforming.
A fluid deforms continuously under
the influence of a shear stress, no
matter how small.
In solids, stress is proportional to
strain, but in fluids, stress is
proportional to strain rate.
Deformation of a rubber block
When a constant shear force is
applied, a solid eventually stops placed between two parallel plates
deforming at some fixed strain under the influence of a shear
angle, whereas a fluid never stops force. The shear stress shown is
deforming and approaches a that on the rubber—an equal but
constant rate of strain. opposite shear stress acts on the
upper plate.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 6
 What is a Fluid?

Stress: Force per unit area.

Normal stress: The normal
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress in a
fluid at rest.
Zero shear stress: A fluid at rest is
at a state of zero shear stress.
When the walls are removed or a
liquid container is tilted, a shear
develops as the liquid moves to The normal stress and shear stress at
re-establish a horizontal free the surface of a fluid element. For
surface. fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero
and pressure is the only normal
stress.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 7
 What is a Fluid?
In a liquid, groups of molecules can move relative to each other, but the
volume remains relatively constant because of the strong cohesive forces
between the molecules. As a result, a liquid takes the shape of the
container it is in, and it forms a free surface in a larger container in a
gravitational field.
A gas expands until it encounters the walls of the container and fills the
entire available space. This is because the gas molecules are widely
spaced, and the cohesive forces between them are very small. Unlike
liquids, a gas in an open container cannot form a free surface.

Unlike a liquid, a gas does not

form a free surface, and it expands
to fill the entire available space.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 8
 What is a Fluid?
Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
Solid: The molecules in a solid are arranged in a pattern that is repeated
throughout.
Liquid: In liquids molecules can rotate and translate freely.
Gas: In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each other, and
molecular ordering is nonexistent.

The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at

relatively fixed positions in a solid, (b) groups of molecules move about each
other in the liquid phase, and (c) individual molecules move about at random
in the gas phase.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 9
 What is a Fluid?
Gas and vapor are often used as synonymous words.
Gas: The vapor phase of a substance is customarily called a gas when it
is above the critical temperature.
Vapor: Usually implies that the current phase is not far from a state of
condensation.

Macroscopic or classical approach: Does

not require a knowledge of the behavior of
individual molecules and provides a direct and
easy way to analyze engineering problems.
Microscopic or statistical approach: Based
on the average behavior of large groups of
individual molecules.

On a microscopic scale, pressure is

determined by the interaction of individual
gas molecules. However, we can measure
the pressure on a macroscopic scale with
a pressure gage.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 10
 Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid dynamics is used extensively

in the design of artificial hearts.
Shown here is the Penn State
Electric Total Artificial Heart.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 11
 Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 12

 Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 13

 1–2 A BRIEF HISTORY OF FLUID MECHANICS

Segment of Pergamon pipeline. Each clay

pipe section was 13 to 18 cm in diameter. A mine hoist powered by a
reversible water wheel.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 14
 A BRIEF HISTORY OF FLUID MECHANICS

Osborne Reynolds’ original apparatus for demonstrating the onset of

turbulence in pipes, being operated by John Lienhard at the University
of Manchester in 1975.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 15

 A BRIEF HISTORY OF FLUID MECHANICS

The Wright brothers take flight at Kitty Hawk.

Old and new wind turbine

technologies north of Woodward,
OK. The modern turbines have 1.6
MW capacities.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 16

 1–3 THE NO-SLIP CONDITION

A fluid flowing over a stationary

surface comes to a complete stop at
The development of a velocity
profile due to the no-slip condition the surface because of the no-slip
as a fluid flows over a blunt nose. condition.

Boundary layer: The

flow region adjacent to
the wall in which the
viscous effects (and
thus the velocity
gradients) are
Flow separation during flow over a curved surface. significant.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 17
 1–4 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are regions
(typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are
negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.

The flow of an originally uniform

fluid stream over a flat plate, and
the regions of viscous flow (next
to the plate on both sides) and
inviscid flow (away from the
plate).

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 18

 1–4 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
Internal versus External Flow
External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such
as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
• Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is completely
bounded by solid surfaces.

• Water flow in a pipe is

internal flow, and
airflow over a ball is
external flow .
• The flow of liquids in a
duct is called open-
channel flow if the duct
is only partially filled
with the liquid and
there is a free surface.
External flow over a tennis ball, and the
turbulent wake region behind.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 19

 1–4 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Incompressible flow: If the
density of flowing fluid remains
nearly constant throughout (e.g.,
liquid flow).
Compressible flow: If the density
of fluid changes during flow (e.g.,
high-speed gas flow)
When analyzing rockets, spacecraft,
and other systems that involve high-
speed gas flows, the flow speed is
often expressed by Mach number

Schlieren image of the spherical shock

wave produced by a bursting ballon at the
Ma = 1 Sonic flow Penn State Gas Dynamics Lab.
Ma < 1 Subsonic flow Several secondary shocks are seen in
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow the air surrounding the ballon.
Ma >> 1 Hypersonic flow
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 20
 1–4 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow

Laminar flow: The highly ordered

fluid motion characterized by
smooth layers of fluid. The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such as oils
at low velocities is typically
laminar.
Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high velocities
and is characterized by velocity
fluctuations. The flow of low-
viscosity fluids such as air at high
velocities is typically turbulent.
Transitional flow: A flow that
alternates between being laminar
and turbulent.
Laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows
over a flat plate.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 21
 1–4 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
Natural (or Unforced)
versus Forced Flow
Forced flow: A fluid is forced
to flow over a surface or in a
pipe by external means such
as a pump or a fan.
Natural flow: Fluid motion is
due to natural means such as
the buoyancy effect, which
manifests itself as the rise of
warmer (and thus lighter) fluid
and the fall of cooler (and thus
denser) fluid.
In this schlieren image of a girl in a swimming
suit, the rise of lighter, warmer air adjacent to
her body indicates that humans and warm-
blooded animals are surrounded by thermal
plumes of rising warm air.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 22
 1–4 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
• The term steady implies no change at
a point with time.
• The opposite of steady is unsteady.
• The term uniform implies no change
with location over a specified region.
• The term periodic refers to the kind of
unsteady flow in which the flow
oscillates about a steady mean.
• Many devices such as turbines,
compressors, boilers, condensers, and
heat exchangers operate for long
periods of time under the same
conditions, and they are classified as
steady-flow devices.
Oscillating wake of a blunt-based airfoil at
Mach number 0.6. Photo (a) is an
instantaneous image, while photo (b) is a
long-exposure (time-averaged) image.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 23
 1–4 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS

Comparison of (a) instantaneous snapshot of an unsteady flow, and (b) long

exposure picture of the same flow.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 24
 1–4 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
• A flow field is best characterized by its
velocity distribution.
• A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-
dimensional if the flow velocity varies in
one, two, or three dimensions, respectively. Flow over a car antenna is
• However, the variation of velocity in certain approximately two-dimensional
directions can be small relative to the except near the top and bottom of
variation in other directions and can be the antenna.
ignored.

The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V = V(r, z) and thus the
flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional
downstream when the velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in the
flow direction, V = V(r).
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 25
 Example 1-1

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 26

 1–5 SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME
 System: A quantity of matter or a region
in space chosen for study.
 Surroundings: The mass or region
outside the system
 Boundary: The real or imaginary surface
that separates the system from its
surroundings.
 The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
 Systems may be considered to be closed
or open.

• Closed system
(Control mass):
A fixed amount of
mass, and no
mass can cross its
boundary.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 27

 1–5 SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME
 Open system (control volume): A properly
selected region in space.
 It usually encloses a device that involves mass
flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
 Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of
a control volume.
 Control surface: The boundaries of a control
volume. It can be real or imaginary.

An open system (a control

volume) with one inlet and
one exit.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 28
 1–6 IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

 Any physical quantity can be characterized by

dimensions.
 The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions
are called units.
 Some basic dimensions such as mass m,
length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V,
energy E, and volume V are expressed in
terms of the primary dimensions and are
called secondary dimensions, or derived
dimensions.
 Metric SI system: A simple and logical system
based on a decimal relationship between the
various units.
 English system: It has no apparent
systematic numerical base, and various units
in this system are related to each other rather
arbitrarily.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 29

 Some SI and English Units

Work = Force  Distance The SI unit prefixes are used in all

1 J = 1 N∙m branches of engineering.
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

The definition of the force units.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 30
 Some SI and English Units

W weight
m mass
g gravitational
acceleration

A body weighing
150 kgf on earth
will weigh only 25
lbf on the moon.

The relative magnitudes of the

force units newton (N), kilogram-
force (kgf), and pound-force (lbf).

The weight of a unit mass at sea level.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 31
 Some SI and English Units

A typical match yields about one Btu (or

one kJ) of energy if completely burned.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 32
 Unity Conversion Ratios
Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.

All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be

formed by combinations of primary units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as

They can also be expressed more conveniently

as unity conversion ratios as

To be dimensionally
homogeneous, all the
Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and terms in an equation
are unitless, and thus such ratios (or their inverses) must have the same
can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to unit.
properly convert units.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 33

 Unity Conversion Ratios

Every unity conversion ratio (as well

as its inverse) is exactly equal to one.
Shown here are a few commonly used
unity conversion ratios.
Always check the units in your
calculations.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 34

 Unity Conversion Ratios

A quirk in the metric

system of units.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 35

 EXAMPLE 1-2

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 36

 EXAMPLE 1-3

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 37

 EXAMPLE 1-4

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 38

 1–7 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF ENGINEERING PROBLEMS

Experimental vs. Analytical Analysis

An engineering device or process can be studied either experimentally
(testing and taking measurements) or analytically (by analysis or
calculations).
The experimental approach has the advantage that we deal with the
actual physical system, and the desired quantity is determined by
measurement, within the limits of experimental error. However, this
approach is expensive, time-consuming, and often impractical.
The analytical approach (including the numerical approach) has the
advantage that it is fast and inexpensive, but the results obtained are
subject to the accuracy of the assumptions, approximations, and
idealizations made in the analysis.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 39

 Modeling in Engineering
Why do we need differential equations?
The descriptions of most scientific problems
involve equations that relate the changes in
some key variables to each other.
In the limiting case of infinitesimal or
differential changes in variables, we obtain
differential equations that provide precise
mathematical formulations for the physical
principles and laws by representing the
rates of change as derivatives.
Therefore, differential equations are used to
investigate a wide variety of problems in
sciences and engineering.
Do we always need differential
equations? Many problems encountered in
practice can be solved without resorting to
differential equations and the complications
associated with them.
Mathematical modeling of physical
problems.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 40
 Modeling in Engineering
Complex model (very accurate )
vs.
Simple model (not-so-accurate)

Simplified models are often used in

fluid mechanics to obtain
approximate solutions to difficult
engineering problems.
Here, the helicopter's rotor is
modeled by a disk, across which is
imposed a sudden change in
pressure. The helicopter's body is
modeled by a simple ellipsoid. This
simplified model yields the essential
features of the overall air flow field in
the vicinity of the ground.

The right choice is usually the

simplest model that yields
satisfactory results.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 41

 1–8 PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE

 Step 1: Problem Statement

 Step 2: Schematic
 Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
 Step 4: Physical Laws
 Step 5: Properties
 Step 6: Calculations
 Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 42

 1–8 PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE

A step-by-step approach can greatly

simplify problem solving.

The assumptions made while solving

an engineering problem must be
reasonable and justifiable.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 43

 1–8 PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE

Neatness and organization are

highly valued by employers.

The results obtained from an

engineering analysis must be
checked for reasonableness.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 44

 1–9 ENGINEERING SOFTWARE PACKAGES

All the computing power and the engineering

software packages available today are just
tools, and tools have meaning only in the
hands of masters.
Hand calculators did not eliminate the need
to teach our children how to add or subtract,
and sophisticated medical software packages
did not take the place of medical school
training.
Neither will engineering software packages
replace the traditional engineering education.
They will simply cause a shift in emphasis in
the courses from mathematics to physics.
That is, more time will be spent in the
classroom discussing the physical aspects of
the problems in greater detail, and less time
on the mechanics of solution procedures. An excellent word-processing
program does not make a person a
good writer; it simply makes a good
writer a more efficient writer.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 45
 EES (Engineering Equation Solver)

(Pronounced as ease):
EES is a program that solves systems of linear or nonlinear
algebraic or differential equations numerically.
It has a large library of built-in thermodynamic property
functions as well as mathematical functions.
Unlike some software packages, EES does not solve
engineering problems; it only solves the equations supplied
by the user.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 46

 EXAMPLE 1-5

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 47

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 48
 CFD SOFTWARE

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 49

 1–10 ACCURACY, PRECISION, AND SIGNIFICANT DIGITS

Accuracy error (inaccuracy): The value of one

reading minus the true value. In general,
accuracy of a set of measurements refers to the
closeness of the average reading to the true
value. Accuracy is generally associated with
repeatable, fixed errors.
Precision error: The value of one reading
minus the average of readings. In general,
precision of a set of measurements refers to the
fineness of the resolution and the repeatability
of the instrument. Precision is generally
associated with unrepeatable, random errors.
Significant digits: Digits that are relevant and
meaningful.
Illustration of accuracy versus precision. Shooter A
is more precise, but less accurate, while shooter B
is more accurate, but less precise.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 50

 1–10 ACCURACY, PRECISION, AND SIGNIFICANT DIGITS

A result with more significant digits

than that of given data falsely implies
more precision.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 51

 1–10 ACCURACY, PRECISION, AND SIGNIFICANT DIGITS

An instrument with many digits of resolution (stopwatch c) may

be less accurate than an instrument with few digits of resolution
(stopwatch a). What can you say about stopwatches b and d?

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 52

 Example 1-6

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 1 53