Introductory Basics

12/08/21 1
Basics in three areas
Some of the notations and concepts from
these areas will be employed from time to
time in the presentations for this course:
 Software engineering
 Operating systems
 Networks.

12/08/21 2
 Software Engineering Basics

12/08/21 3
Procedural vs. OO Programming
In building network applications, there are two
main classes of programming languages:
procedural language and object-oriented
language.
 Procedural languages, with the C language being the
primary example, use procedures (functions) to break
down the complexity of the tasks that an application
entails.  
 Object-oriented languages, exemplified by Java, use
objects to encapsulate the details. Each object
simulates an object in real life, carrying state data as
well as behaviors. State data are represented as
instance data. Behaviors are represented as methods.

12/08/21 4
UML Class Diagram Notations
B a s ic U M L C la s s D ia g r a m N o ta tio n s
A c la s s /in te r fa c e is r e p r e s e n t e d a s f o llo w s :

in t e r f a c e /c la s s
nam e
a ttr ib u te s
a t t r ib u te s a r e s ta tic / in s t a n c e v a r ia b le s /c o n s t a n t s
(n a m e : ty pe )

o p e r a t io n s
o p e r a tio n s a r e s ta t ic o r in s ta n c e m e th o d s .
(m e th o d n a m e s)

NOTE: The shape, the style of the line (dashed or

solid), the direction of the arrow, and the shape of the
arrowheads (pointed, hollow, or solid) are significant.
UML: Unified Modeling Language
12/08/21 5
UML Class Diagram Notations
c la s s A c la s s B
c la s s B d e p e n d s o n ( u s e s )
a t t r ib u te s a t tr ib u t e s
c la s s A

o p e r a tio n s o p e r a tio n s

c la s s C
c la s s C im p le m e n t s
a t t r ib u te s
J a v a in t e r f a c e s o m e I n te r f a c e
so m e In te rfa ce
o p e r a tio n s

12/08/21 6
UML Class Diagram Notations
interface D class E
class E implements/realizes
attributes attributes
interface D

operations operations

Class F class G
class G inherits from class F
attributes attributes

operations operations

12/08/21 7
The Architecture of Distributed
Applications

P r e s e n ta t io n
A p p lic a tio n ( B u s in e s s ) lo g ic

S e r v ic e s

12/08/21 8
 Operating Systems Basics

12/08/21 9
Operating systems basics
 A process consists of an executing
program, its current values, state
information, and the resources used by the
operating system to manage its execution.
 A program is an artifact constructed by a
software developer; a process is a dynamic
entity which exists only when a program is
run.

12/08/21 10
Process State Transition Diagram
t e r m in a t e d
sta rt
queued
e x it
d is p a t c h r u n n in g
ready

e v e n t c o m p le t io n w a it in g
fo r ev en t
b lo c k e d

S im p life d fin it e s ta t e d ia g r a m f o r a p r o c e s s 's life tim e

12/08/21 11
Java processes
 There are different types of Java programs:
applications, applets, and servlets, all are written as
a class.
 A Java application program has a main method, and is
run as an independent (standalone) process.
 An applet does not have a main method, and is run
using a browser or the appletviewer.
 A servlet does not have a main method, and is run in the
context of a web server.
 A Java program is compiled into bytecode, a
universal object code. When run, the bytecode is
interpreted by the Java Virtual Machine (JVM).

12/08/21 12
Three Types of Java programs
 Applications
a program whose byte code can be run on any system
which has a Java Virtual Machine. An application may be
standalone (monolithic) or distributed (if it interacts with
another process).
 Applets
A program whose byte code is downloaded from a remote
machine and is run in the browser’s Java Virtual Machine.
 Servlets
A program whose byte code resides on a remote machine
and is run at the request of an HTTP client (a browser).

12/08/21 13
Three Types of Java programs
A standalone Java application is run on a local machine
computer

Java object

Java Virtual Machine

An applet is an object downloaded (transferred) from a remote machine,

then run on a local machine.
an applet Java object

Java Virtual Machine

A servlet is an object that runs on a remote machine and

interacts with a local program using a request-response protocol
a servlet request a process

response

12/08/21 14
 A sample Java application
/* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* A s a m p le o f a s im p le J a v a a p p lic a tio n .
* M . L iu 1 /8 /0 2
******************************************************/

im p o r t ja v a .io .* ;

c la s s M y P r o g r a m {

p u b lic s t a t ic v o id m a in ( S t r in g [ ] a r g s )
th r o w s I O E x c e p tio n {

B u ffe re dR e a de r k e y bo a rd = n e w
B u ffe r e d R e a d e r (n e w I n p u tS tr e a m R e a d e r (S y s t e m .in )) ;
S t r in g t h e N a m e ;
S y s te m .o u t.p r in tln (" W h a t is y o u r n a m e ? " );
th e N a m e = k e y b o a r d .r e a d L in e ( );
S y s te m .o u t.p r in t (" H e llo " + th e N a m e );
S y s te m .o u t.p r in tln (" - w e lc o m e to C S C 3 6 9 .\n " );

} // e n d m a in

} //e n d c la s s
12/08/21 15
 A Sample Java Applet
/* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* A s a m p le o f a s im p le a p p le t .
* M . L iu 1 /8 /0 2
***************************************************/
< !- - A w e b p a g e w h ic h , w h e n b r o w s e d , w ill r u n >
im p o r t ja v a . a p p le t . A p p le t ; < !- - t h e M y A p p le t a p p le t >
im p o r t ja v a . a w t . * ; < !- - M . L iu 1 /8 /0 2 >

p u b lic c la s s M y A p p le t e x t e n d s A p p le t { < t it le > S a m p le A p p le t < /t it le >

< h r>
p u b lic v o id p a in t ( G r a p h ic s g ) {
s e t B a c k g r o u n d ( C o lo r .b lu e ) ; < a p p le t c o d e = " M y A p p le t .c la s s " w id t h = 5 0 0 h e ig h t = 5 0 0 >
< /a p p le t >
F o n t C la u d e = n e w F o n t (" A r ia l" , F o n t.B O L D , 4 0 );
g .s e tF o n t (C la u d e ); < h r>
g .s e t C o lo r ( C o lo r .y e llo w ) ; < a h r e f = " H e llo . ja v a " > T h e s o u r c e . < /a >
g .d r a w S t r in g ( " H e llo W o r ld !" , 1 0 0 , 1 0 0 ) ;
} // e n d p a in t

} //e n d c la s s

12/08/21 16
 A Sample Java Servlet
/* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* A s a m p le o f a s im p le J a v a s e r v le t .
* M . L iu 1 /8 /0 2
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * /
im p o r t ja v a .io .* ;
im p o r t ja v a .t e x t .* ;
im p o r t ja v a .u t il.* ;
im p o r t ja v a x .s e r v le t .* ;
im p o r t ja v a x .s e r v le t .h t t p .* ;

p u b lic c la s s M y S e r v le t e x t e n d s H t tp S e r v le t {

p u b lic v o id d o G e t (H tt p S e r v le tR e q u e s t r e q u e s t,
H t t p S e r v le t R e s p o n s e r e s p o n s e )
t h r o w s S e r v le t E x c e p t io n , I O E x c e p t io n {

P r in t W r it e r o u t ;
S tr in g title = " M y S e r v le t O u tp u t" ;
// s e t c o n te n t ty p e a n d o th e r r e s p o n s e h e a d e r
// fie ld s fir s t
r e s p o n s e .s e tC o n te n tT y p e (" te x t/h tm l" );
// th e n w r it e th e d a ta o f th e r e s p o n s e
o u t = r e s p o n s e .g e tW r it e r ( );
o u t .p r in t ln ( " < H T M L > < H E A D > < T I T L E > " );
o u t .p r in t ln ( t it le ) ;
o u t .p r in t ln ( " < /T I T L E > < /H E A D > < B O D Y > " );
o u t .p r in t ln ( " < H 1 > " + t it le + " < /H 1 > " ) ;
o u t .p r in t ln ( " < P > H e llo W o r ld !" ) ;
o u t .p r in t ln ( " < /B O D Y > < /H T M L > " ) ;
o u t.c lo s e ();
} //e n d d o G e t

} //e n d c la s s

12/08/21 17
A Sample Java Servlet
import java.util.*;
import javax.servlet.*;
import javax.servlet.http.*;

public class AddComments extends HttpServlet

{
public void init (ServletConfig config) throws ServletException
{
super.init(config);} // end of init()

public void service (HttpServletRequest req,

HttpServletResponse resp)
throws ServletException, IOException
{
// coding here } // end of service()

12/08/21 18
Concurrent Processing
On modern day operating systems, multiple
processes appear to be executing concurrently on
a machine by timesharing resources.

P rocesse s
P1
P2
P3
P4
tim e
T im e s h a r in g o f a r e s o u r c e

12/08/21 19
Concurrent processing within a
process
It is often useful for a process to have parallel threads of
execution, each of which timeshare the system resources
in much the same way as concurrent processes.
A p a r e n t p r o c e s s m a y s p a w n c h ild p r o c e s s e s . A p r o c e s s m a y s p a w n c h ild t h r e a d s
a p ro c ess
p aren t p ro c ess
m a in t h r e a d

c h ild t h r e a d 1

c h ild t h r e a d 2
c h ild p r o c e s s e s

C o n c u r r e n t p r o c e s s in g w it h in a p r o c e s s
12/08/21 20
C++ Processes
#include <stdio.h>
#include <iostream.h>
#include <unistd.h>

int main()
{
int pid = -1;
pid = fork(); // creates a new process
if (pid == 0) // in child process
while(1)
{ cout << "I am running in a child process.\n"; sleep(5); }
else
while(1)
{ cout << "I am running in the parent process.\n"; sleep(5); }
return 0;
}

12/08/21 21
 Java threads
 The Java Virtual Machine allows an application to have multiple
threads of execution running concurrently.
 Java provides a Thread class:
public class Thread
extends Object
implements Runnable
 When a Java Virtual Machine starts up, there is usually a single thread
(which typically calls the method named main of some designated
class). The Java Virtual Machine continues to execute threads until
either of the following occurs:
 The exit method of class Runtime has been called and the security
manager has permitted the exit operation to take place.
 All threads have terminated, either by returning from the call to the run
method or by throwing an exception that propagates beyond the run
method.

12/08/21 22
Two ways to create a new thread of execution
 Using a subclass of the Thread class
 Using a class that implements the
Runnable interface

12/08/21 23
Create a class that is a subclass of
the Thread class
Declare a class to be a subclass of Thread. This subclass
should override the run method of class Thread. An
instance of the subclass can then be allocated and started:
T h re a d
...

ru n ( )
s le e p ( )
s ta r t( )

R u n T h re a d s
S o m e T h re a d
A J a v a m y ID
a p p lic a t io n
illu s t r a t in g t h e
u s e o f T h re a d ru n ( )
c la s s
12/08/21 24
 Create a class that is a subclass of
the Thread class
im p o r t S o m e T h r e a d ;
p u b lic c la s s S o m e T h r e a d e x t e n d s T h r e a d {
p u b lic c la s s R u n T h r e a d s
in t m y I D ;
{
p u b lic s ta t ic v o id m a in (S tr in g [] a r g s )
S o m e T h r e a d ( in t id ) {
{
th is .m y I D = id ;
S o m e T h re a d p1 = n e w S o m e T h re a d(1 );
}
p 1 .s ta r t();
p u b lic v o id r u n ( ) {
S o m e T h re a d p2 = n e w S o m e T h re a d(2 );
in t i;
p 2 .s ta r t();
f o r (i = 1 ; i < 1 1 ; i+ + )
S y s te m .o u t.p r in tln (" T h r e a d " + m y I D + " : " + i);
S o m e T h re a d p3 = n e w S o m e T h re a d(3 );
}
p 3 .s ta r t();
} //e n d c la s s S o m e T h r e a d
}
} // e n d c la s s R u n T h r e a d s

12/08/21 25
Java Threads-2
The other way to create a thread is to declare a class that
implements the Runnable interface. That class then implements
the run method. An instance of the class can then be allocated,
passed as an argument when creating Thread, and started.
T h read
...

ru n ( )
R u n T h read s2
s le e p ( )
A Java s ta r t( )
a p p lic a t io n
illu s t r a t in g t h e
u s e o f th e
R u n n a b le
in t e r f a c e S om eT hread 2
m y ID R u n n a b le

ru n ( )

12/08/21 26
 Create a class that implements
the Runnable interface
c la s s S o m e T h r e a d 2 im p le m e n t s R u n n a b le {
p u b lic c la s s R u n T h r e a d s 2
in t m y I D ;
{
p u b lic s ta t ic v o id m a in ( S tr in g [ ] a r g s )
S o m e T h r e a d 2 ( in t id ) {
{
th is .m y I D = id ;
T h re a d p1 = n e w T h re a d(n e w S o m e T h re a d2 (1 ));
}
p 1 .s ta r t();
p u b lic v o id r u n ( ) {
T h re a d p2 = n e w T h re a d(n e w S o m e T h re a d2 (2 ));
in t i;
p 2 .s ta r t();
f o r (i = 1 ; i < 1 1 ; i+ + )
S y s t e m .o u t.p r in t ln (" T h r e a d " + m y I D + " : " + i) ;
T h re a d p3 = n e w T h re a d(n e w S o m e T h re a d2 (3 ));
}
p 3 .s ta r t();
} //e n d c la s s S o m e T h r e a d
}
}

12/08/21 27
Program samples
 RunThreads.java
 SomeThread.java
 RunThreads2.java
 SomeThread2.java

12/08/21 28
Thread-safe Programming
 When two threads independently access and
update the same data object, such as a counter, as
part of their code, the updating needs to be
synchronized. (See next slide.)
 Because the threads are executed concurrently, it
is possible for one of the updates to be
overwritten by the other due to the sequencing of
the two sets of machine instructions executed in
behalf of the two threads.
 To protect against the possibility, a synchronized
method can be used to provide mutual exclusion.

12/08/21 29
 Race Condition
t im e

f e t c h v a lu e in c o u n t e r a n d lo a d in t o a r e g is t e r f e t c h v a lu e in c o u n t e r a n d lo a d in t o a r e g is t e r

in c r e m e n t v a lu e in r e g is t e r f e t c h v a lu e in c o u n t e r a n d lo a d in t o a r e g is t e r

s t o r e v a lu e in r e g is t e r t o c o u n t e r in c r e m e n t v a lu e in r e g is t e r

in c r e m e n t v a lu e in r e g is te r
f e t c h v a lu e in c o u n t e r a n d lo a d in t o a r e g is t e r

in c r e m e n t v a lu e in r e g is te r s t o r e v a lu e in r e g is t e r t o c o u n t e r

s to r e v a lu e in r e g i s te r to c o u n te r s to r e v a lu e in r e g is te r to c o u n te r

T h is e x e c u tio n re s u lts in th e T h is e x e c u tio n re s u lts in th e

valu e 2 in th e c o u n te r valu e 1 in th e c o u n te r

in s t r u c t io n e x e c u t e d in c o n c u r r e n t p r o c e s s o r t h r e a d 1
in s t r u c t io n e x e c u t e d in c o n c u r r e n t p r o c e s s o r t h r e a d 2

12/08/21 30
Synchronized method in a thread
c la s s S o m e T h r e a d 3 im p le m e n t s R u n n a b le {
s ta t ic in t c o u n t= 0 ;

S o m e T h re a d3 () {
su p e r();
}

p u b lic v o id r u n ( ) {
u pd a te ( );
}

s ta t ic p u b lic s y n c h r o n iz e d v o id u p d a t e ( ) {
in t m y C o u n t = c o u n t;
m y C o u n t+ + ;
co u n t = m y C o u n t;
S y s t e m .o u t .p r in tln ( " c o u n t= " + c o u n t+
" ; th r e a d c o u n t= " + T h r e a d .a c t iv e C o u n t ( ) ) ;
}
}

12/08/21 31
 Network Basics

12/08/21 32
Protocols
 In the context of communications, a protocol is a set of
rules that must be observed by the participants.
 In communications involving computers, protocols
must be formally defined and precisely implemented.
For each protocol, there must be rules that specify the
followings:
 How is the data exchanged encoded?
 How are events (sending , receiving) synchronized
so that the participants can send and receive in a
coordinated order?
 The specification of a protocol does not dictate how
the rules are to be implemented.

12/08/21 34
The network architecture
 Network hardware transfers electronic signals, which
represent a bit stream, between two devices.
 Modern day network applications require an
application programming interface (API) which masks
the underlying complexities of data transmission.
 A layered network architecture allows the
functionalities needed to mask the complexities to be
provided incrementally, layer by layer.
 Actual implementation of the functionalities may not be
clearly divided by layer.

12/08/21 35
The OSI (Open System Interconnection )
Seven-layer network architecture
a p p lic a t io n la y e r a p p lic a t io n la y e r

p r e s e n t a t io n la y e r p r e s e n t a t io n la y e r

s e s s io n la y e r
Message
s e s s io n la y e r

t r a n s p o r t la y e r t r a n s p o r t la y e r
Segment
n e t w o r k la y e r
Datagram n e t w o r k la y e r

d a t a lin k la y e r Frame d a t a lin k la y e r

p h y s ic a l la y e r 0/1 p h y s ic a l la y e r

12/08/21 36
Network Architecture
The division of the layers is conceptual: the
implementation of the functionalities need not be
clearly divided as such in the hardware and
software that implements the architecture.
The conceptual division serves at least two useful
purposes :
1. Systematic specification of protocols
it allows protocols to be specified systematically
2. Conceptual Data Flow: it allows programs to be
written in terms of logical data flow.

12/08/21 37
The TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite
is a set of network protocols which supports a four-layer network
architecture.
 It is currently the protocol suite employed on the Internet.

A p p lic a t io n la y e r A p p lic a t io n la y e r

T r a n s p o r t la y e r T r a n s p o r t la y e r

I n t e r n e t la y e r I n t e r n e t la y e r

P h y s ic a l la y e r P h y s ic a l la y e r

T h e I n te r n e t n e tw o r k a r c h ite c tu r e

12/08/21 38
The TCP/IP Protocol Suite -2
 The Internet/network layer implements the
Internet Protocol, which provides the
functionalities for allowing data to be transmitted
between any two hosts on the Internet.
 The Transport layer implements TCP, and
delivers the transmitted data to a specific process
running on an Internet host.
 The Application layer supports the programming
interface used for building a program.

12/08/21 39
Internet Inter-ORB Protocol (IIOP)
-----------------------
Application Objects
-----------------------
ORB
-----------------------
IIOP
-----------------------
TCP
-----------------------
IP
-----------------------
Ethernet
-----------------------
Physical Device
-----------------------

12/08/21 40
Network Resources
 Network resources are resources available to the
participants of a distributed computing
community.
 Network resources include hardware such as
computers and equipment, and software such as
processes, email mailboxes, files, web
documents.
 An important class of network resources is
network services such as the World Wide Web
and file transfer (FTP), which are provided by
specific processes running on computers.

12/08/21 41
Identification of Network Resources
One of the key challenges in distributed
computing is the unique identification of
resources available on the network, such as
e-mail mailboxes, and web documents.
 Addressing an Internet Host
 Addressing/port number a process running on
a host
 Email Addresses
 Addressing web contents: URL
12/08/21 42
 Addressing an Internet Host

12/08/21 43
The Internet Topology

a n In te rn e t h o s t

s u b n e ts

T h e I n te rn e t b a c k b o n e

T h e I n t e r n e t T o p o lo g y M o d e l
12/08/21 44
 Internet structure: network of networks
local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Local and tier- Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
3 ISPs are
customers of Tier 1 ISP Network
higher tier NAP Access Point
ISPs
connecting
them to rest
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP
of Internet
Tier-2 ISP local
Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP
Ref: Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach Featuring the Internet, by
Jim Kurose and Keith Ross
12/08/21 45
The Internet Topology
 The Internet consists of an hierarchy of networks,
interconnected via network backbones.
 Each network has a unique network address.
 Computers, or hosts, are connected to a network.
Each host has a unique ID within its network.
 Each process running on a host is associated with
zero or more port numbers. A port number is a
logical entity for data transmission.

12/08/21 46
 The Internet addressing scheme
 In IP version 4, each address is 32 bit long.
 The address space accommodates 232 (4.3 billion) addresses in total.
 Addresses are divided into 5 classes (A through E)

b y te 0 b y te 1 b y te 2 b y te 3
class A address 0
class B address 1 0
n e tw o rk a d d re s s
class C address 1 1 0
h o s t p o r t io n
m u ltc ast a d d r e ss 1 1 1 0 m u ltic ast g r o u p
reserved address 1 1 1 1 0 reserved
12/08/21 47
IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
 Routing IP address, introduced in 1993
 address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in
subnet portion of address

subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23

12/08/21 48
Packet Delivery
 Unicast delivery: a packet is delivered to a single
computer.
 Broadcast delivery: a packet is delivered to all
computers on a given network (i.e. network
address, or broadcast address).
 Multicast delivery: a packet is delivered to a
specific group of hosts. All machines in that
group will receive a copy of any packet sent to
that multicast addresses (e.g., multicast routing
protocols, a permanent address).
12/08/21 49
Permanent IP Multicast Addresses
 224.0.0.0 through 239.255.255.255

 224.0.0.0base address (reserved)

 224.0.0.1All systems on this subnet
 224.0.0.3All routers on this subnet
 224.0.0.4DVMRP Routers

 Ref: Internetworking with TCP/IP: principles,

protocols, and architectures, 4th ed., by Douglas
Comer.
12/08/21 50
 The Internet addressing scheme - 2

S u b d iv id in g th e h o s t p o r tio n o f a n I n te r n e t a d d r e s s :
b y te 0 b y te 1 b y te 2 b y te 3

class B address 1 0 n e tw o rk a d d r e s s h o s t p o r t io n

A c la s s A /C ad d re s s s p a c e c an
a l s o b e s i m i l a r l y s u b d i v i d e d ..
W h ic h p o rtio n o f th e h o s t a d d re s s
is u s e d fo r th e s u b n e t id e n tific a tio n
is d e te rm in e d b y a s u b n e t m a s k . su b n et ad d ress lo c a l h o s t a d d r e s s

12/08/21 51
Example:
Suppose the dotted-decimal notation for a particular Internet address
is129.65.24.50. The 32-bit binary expansion of the notation is as
follows:
  1 2 9 .6 5 .2 4 .5 0
10000001

01000001

00011000
00110010

Since the leading bit sequence is 10, the address is a Class B address.
Within the class, the network portion is identified by the bits in the
first two bytes, that is, 00000101000001, and the host portion is the
values in the last two bytes, or 0001100000110010. For convenience,
the binary prefix for class identification is often included as part of the
network portion of the address, so that we would say that this
particular address is at network 129.65 and then at host address 24.50
on that network.
12/08/21 52
Another example:
Given the address 224.0.0.1, one can expand it as follows:
 
2 2 4 .0 .0 .1
1110000

00000000

00000000
The binary prefix of 1110 signifies
0 0 0 0 0 0that
01 this is class D, or
multicast, address. Data packets sent to this address
should therefore be delivered to the multicast group
0000000000000000000000000001.

12/08/21 53
The Internet Address Scheme - 3
 For human readability, Internet addresses
are written in a dotted decimal notation:
nnn.nnn.nnn.nnn, where each nnn group is a decimal
value in the range of 0 through 255
# Internet host table (found in /etc/hosts file)
127.0.0.1 localhost
129.65.242.5 falcon.csc.calpoly.edu falcon loghost
129.65.241.9 falcon-srv.csc.calpoly.edu falcon-srv
129.65.242.4 hornet.csc.calpoly.edu hornet
129.65.241.8 hornet-srv.csc.calpoly.edu hornet-srv
129.65.54.9 onion.csc.calpoly.edu onion
129.65.241.3 hercules.csc.calpoly.edu hercules

12/08/21 54
IP version 6 Addressing Scheme
 Each address is 128-bit long.
 There are three types of addresses:
 Unicast: An identifier for a single interface.
 Anycast: An identifier for a set of interfaces
(typically belonging to different nodes).
 Multicast: An identifier for a set of interfaces
(typically belonging to different nodes). A packet
sent to a multicast address is delivered to all
interfaces identified by that address.
 See Request for Comments: 2373 http://
www.faqs.org/rfcs/ (link is in book’s reference)

12/08/21 55
 The Domain Name System
For user friendliness, each Internet address is mapped
to a symbolic name, using the DNS, in the format of:
<computer-name>.<subdomain hierarchy>.<organization>.<sector name>{.<country code>}
e.g., www.csc.calpoly.edu.us
root

t o p - le v e l d o m a in

com co u n try co d e
edu gov net org m il
in th e U .S .

o r g a n iz a tio n T o p -le v e l d o m a in n a m e h a s to b e a p p lie d fo r .

S u b d o m a in h ie r a c h y a n d n a m e s a r e a s s ig n e d
b y th e o r g a n iz a tio n .

...
s u b d o m a in
...

host nam e

12/08/21 56
 DNS: Root name servers
a Verisign, Dulles, VA
c Cogent, Herndon, VA (also Los Angeles)
d U Maryland College Park, MD k RIPE London (also Amsterdam,
g US DoD Vienna, VA Frankfurt)
h ARL Aberdeen, MD i Autonomica, Stockholm (plus 3
j Verisign, ( 11 locations) other locations)
m WIDE Tokyo
e NASA Mt View, CA
f Internet Software C. Palo Alto, CA
(and 17 other locations)

13 root name
b USC-ISI Marina del Rey, CA servers
l ICANN Los Angeles, CA
worldwide

Ref: Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach Featuring the Internet, by

Jim Kurose and Keith Ross

12/08/21 57
 The Domain Name System
. For network applications, a domain name must be
mapped to its corresponding Internet address.
. Processes known as domain name system servers
provide the mapping service, based on a
distributed database of the mapping scheme.
. The mapping service is offered by thousands of DNS
servers on the Internet, each responsible for a
portion of the name space, called a zone. The
servers that have access to the DNS information
(zone file) for a zone is said to have authority for
that zone.
12/08/21 58
Top-level Domain Names
 .com: For commercial entities, which anyone, anywhere in the
world, can register.
 .net : Originally designated for organizations directly involved in
Internet operations. It is increasingly being used by businesses
when the desired name under "com" is already registered by
another organization. Today anyone can register a name in the
Net domain.
 .org: For miscellaneous organizations, including non-profits.
 .edu: For four-year accredited institutions of higher learning.
 .gov: For US Federal Government entities
 .mil: For US military
 Country Codes :For individual countries based on the
International Standards Organization. For example, ca for
Canada, and jp for Japan.

12/08/21 59
Domain Name Hierarchy
. ( r o o t d o m a in )

.a u ... .c a ... .u s ... .z w .c o m .g o v .e d u . m il .n e t .o rg

c o u n try c o d e
u c s b .e d u ... c a lp o ly . e d u ...

c s c ... e e e n g lis h . . . w ir e le s s
cs ... e c e ...

12/08/21 60
Name lookup and resolution
 If a domain name is used to address a host, its
corresponding IP address must be obtained for the lower-
layer network software.
 The mapping, or name resolution, must be maintained in
some registry.
 For runtime name resolution, a network service is needed;
a protocol must be defined for the naming scheme and for
the service. Example: The DNS service supports the
DNS; the Java RMI (Remote Method Invocation) registry
supports RMI object lookup; JNDI (Java Naming and
Directory Interface) is a network service lookup protocol.

12/08/21 61
 Addressing a process running on
a host

12/08/21 62
Logical Ports
host A

host B
...

p ro c ess

...
p o rt

E a ch h o st h a s 6 5 53 6 po rts.

T h e In te rn e t

12/08/21 63
Well Known Ports
 Each Internet host has 216 (65,535) logical
ports. Each port is identified by a number
between 1 and 65535, and can be allocated
to a particular process.
 Port numbers between 1 and 1023 are
reserved for processes which provide well-
known services such as finger, FTP, HTTP,
and email.

12/08/21 64
Well-known ports
A s s ig n m e n t o f s o m e w e ll-k n o w n p o r ts
P ro to co l Port S e r v ic e

echo 7 IP C t e s t i n g

d a y t im e 13 p r o v id e s t h e c u r r e n t d a t e a n d t im e

ftp 21 f ile t r a n s f e r p r o t o c o l

t e ln e t 23 r e m o t e , c o m m a n d - lin e t e r m in a l s e s s io n

s m tp 25 s im p le m a il t r a n s f e r p r o t o c o l

t im e 37 p r o v id e s a s t a n d a r d t im e

f in g e r 79 p r o v id e s in f o r m a t io n a b o u t a u s e r

h ttp 80 w e b s e rv e r

R M I R e g is t r y 1099 r e g is tr y fo r R e m o te M e th o d In v o c a tio n
w e b s e r v e r w h ic h s u p p o r t s
s p e c ia l w e b s e r v e r 8080
s e r v le t s , J S P , o r A S P

12/08/21 65
Choosing a port to run your program
 For our programming exercises: when a
port is needed, choose a random number
above the well known ports: 1,024- 65,535.
 If you are providing a network service for
the community, then arrange to have a port
assigned to and reserved for your service.

12/08/21 66
 Addressing a Web Document

12/08/21 67
The Uniform Resource Identifier
 Resources to be shared on a network need to be
uniquely identifiable.
 On the Internet, a URI is a character string which
allows a resource to be located.
 There are two types of URIs:
 URL (Uniform Resource Locator) points to a specific
resource at a specific location
 URN (Uniform Resource Name)--
http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2141.txt, points to a
specific resource at a nonspecific location.

12/08/21 68
 URL
A URL has the format of:
protocol://host address[:port]/directory path/file name#section
A sam ple U R L :
h t t p :/ / w w w . c s c . c a lp o ly . e d u :8 0 8 0 / ~ m liu / C S C 3 6 9 / h w . h t m l # h w 1

s e c t io n n a m e
f ile n a m e
host n am e
d ir e c t o r y p a t h
p ro to c o l o f s e rv e r p o rt n u m b er o f serv er p ro c ess

O th e r p r o to c o ls th a t c a n a p p e a r in a U R L a r e :
file
ftp
g o p h er
n ew s
te ln e t
W A IS

12/08/21 69
More on URL
 The path in a URL is relative to the
document root of the server. On the CSL
systems, a user’s document root is ~/www.
 A URL may appear in a document in a
relative form:
< a href=“another.html”>
and the actual URL referred to will be
another.html preceded by the protocol,
hostname, directory path of the document .

12/08/21 70