Research- Process, Problem, hypotheses & Proposal

The Process of Research:

• Research process consists of series of actions
or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these
steps.
• The process of research is cyclic in nature and
is interlinked at every stage.
 Research Process
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to
effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.
Research process in flow chart
FF

FF

Review the literature

Review Design
research Analysis
concepts (Test Interpret
and Formulate (includin Collect and
Define hypothesis
theories hypothesis g sample data report
research if any) F
design) (executi F
problem
Review on)
previews
I research IV V VI VII
finding
II III
F

where F = feed back (helps in controlling the sub-system to which it is transmitted).

FF
= feed forward (serves the vital function of providing criteria for evaluation).
Various steps regarding the research process:
(1) Formulating the research problem
(2) Extensive literature survey
(3) Developing the hypothesis
(4) Preparing the research design
(5) Determining sample design
(6) Collecting the data
(7) Data refining and preparation for analysis
(8) Analysis of data
(9) Generalizations and interpretation, and
(10) The research report and implications for the
Manager’s dilemma.
 Formulating the research problem
• Defining a research problem is a kind of prelude to
the end result one hopes to achieve and therefore it
requires considerable thought and analysis.
• At the very outset the researcher must single out
the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide
the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-
matter that he would like to inquire into.

Initially the problem may be stated in a broad

general way and then the ambiguities, if any,
relating to the problem be resolved.
• The formulation of a general topic into a
specific research problem, thus, constitutes the
first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two
steps are involved in formulating the research
problem,

1.understanding the problem thoroughly, and

2.rephrasing the same into meaningful terms
from an analytical point of view
 Extensive literature survey
• The researcher must examine all available literature to
get himself acquainted with the selected problem.
• He may review two types of literature
1. The conceptual literature
concerning the concepts and theories, and
2. the empirical literature
consisting of studies made earlier which are
similar to the one proposed. The basic outcome of this
review will be the knowledge as to what data
and other materials are available for operational
purposes which will enable the researcher to specify
his own research problem in a meaningful context
• For literature survey connected with the
problem, the researcher can study the
abstracting and indexing journals and published
or unpublished bibliographies .
Researcher can also use Academic journals,
conference proceedings, government
reports, books etc., depending on the nature of
the problem.
 Developing the hypothesis
After extensive literature survey, researcher should
state in clear terms the working hypothesis or
hypotheses.
• Working hypothesis is tentative assumption
made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences.
• research hypotheses which are developed is
particularly important since they provide the focal
point for research.
• In most types of research, the development of
working hypothesis plays an important role.
• Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the
piece of research in hand because it has to be tested.

• The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher

by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on
the right track

• It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the

more important facets of the problem.

• It also indicates the type of data required and the type

of methods of data analysis to be used.
How does one go about developing working
hypotheses?
The answer is by using the following approach:
• (a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem,
its origin and the objectives in seeking a solution;

• (b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning

the problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;

• (c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on

similar problems; and

• (d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original

field interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and
individuals with a view to secure greater insight into practical
aspects of the problem.
• specification of working hypotheses is basic step
of the research process in most research
problems.

• For eg: If the research is oriented towards testing

a direct relationship between work-family conflict
and turnover intentions then Hypothesis could be
“ Higher the conflict, higher is the intention to
leave ”
 Preparing the research design
• After the formulation of research problem, the
researcher will be required to prepare a research design,
i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within
which research would be conducted.
• Since critical managerial decisions are dependent on
research outputs ,it is important to have a design which
will explain how the research problem will be
investigated
• The logic or justification for the selected design needs to
be explicit, accurate and measurable
• Formulation of research design is based on the
orientation of the research, i.e,. Exploratory, descriptive
or causal.
• There are several research designs, such as,
experimental and non-experimental hypothesis
testing.
• Experimental designs which are informal are ;
1. before-and-after without control,
2. after-only with control,
3. before-and-after with control
• Experimental designs which are formal are ;
1. completely randomized design,(CRD)
2. randomized block design,(RBD)
3. Latin square design, (LSD)
4. simple and complex factorial designs,.
• The preparation of the research design, appropriate
for a particular research problem, involves usually the
consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his
staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of
obtaining information will be organised and the
reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance
available for the purpose.
 Determining sample design
• All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete
enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is
known as a census inquiry. census inquiry is not
possible in practice under many circumstances.
• What is Alternative to census? Alternative is study of
sample. Thus, one goes about studying a small and
representative sub-group of the same which is called
sample.
• The researcher must decide the way of selecting a
sample or what is popularly known as the sample
design.
• a sample design is a definite plan determined before
any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample
from a given population.
• Samples can be either probability samples or non-
probability samples.
• The selection of one or the other depends on the
nature of the research, degree of accuracy required
and the time and financial resources available for the
research.
• Note: The probability sampling techniques reveal more
accurate results.
• Sample size: The researcher has to determine the
optimal sample size to be selected in order to obtain
results that can be considered as representative of the
population under study.
 Planning and Collecting the data
• The planning and collecting data for research are
simultaneous to the sampling plan. Because, both are
based on the Research deign and therefore need to
be developed concurrently.
• Sampling plan helps in identifying the population
under study and the data collection plan helps in
working out ways of obtaining information from the
specified population.
• There are several ways of collecting the appropriate
data which differ considerably in context of money
costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the
researcher. They are
1. Primary data method
2. Secondary data method
Primary data is original and collected first hand for
the problem under study.
Primary data can be collected either through
experiment or through survey(personal/telephonic
interviews/mail survey etc.,)

Secondary data is information that has been

collected and compiled earlier.(company records,
magazine articles etc.,)
 Data refining and preparation for analysis
• After the collection of data, it must be refined and
processed in the format required for evaluating the
information
• The collected data should be edited and refined for
any omissions and irregularities.

• The collected data should be then coded and

tabulated for statistical analysis.

• If the data is subjective and qualitative, the information

collected has to be post coded into broad categories
to be able to arrive at any inference and conclusion.
 Analysis of data
• This stage requires, the selection of analytical tools for
assessing the information collected to realize the
research objectives.
• researcher can analyse the collected data with the
help of various statistical techniques(parametric or non
parametric)
• Techniques may be selected based on the type of
study, degree of accuracy required, the sampling plan
used and the nature of the questions asked.
• Univariate, bivariate and multivariate analysis can be
done to examine a single variable, two variables or
more than two variables given under a specific study.
 Generalizations and interpretation
• If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it
may be possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalisation, i.e., to build a theory.
• the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at
certain generalisations.
• If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he
might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some
theory. It is known as interpretation.
• After the data has been analyzed and summarised,
the skill of the researcher in linking the results with the
research objectives, stating clearly the implications of
the findings.
 The research report and implications for the
Manager’s dilemma.
• Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of
what has been done by him.
• Researcher has to explain the implications of his
findings for the corporate world.
• Researcher should be able to give solution for the
Manager’s dilemma

Finally, at this stage , the researcher’s expertise in

analyzing, interpreting and recommending is of
prime importance.
 Defining the Research Problem
• WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
A gap or uncertainty which hampers the process of efficient
decision making in a given body of knowledge is called a
research problem .

• A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a

researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or
practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.

• A general frame work which might assist in problem

formulation may be
• 1. Problem identification process
Problem identification process is action oriented and
requires a narrowing down of a broad decision
problem to the level of information oriented problem in
order to arrive at a meaningful conclusion.
2. Management decision problem
The management can also outsource the problem
identification process to a research agency in case of
lack of time, means or knowledge regarding the
market pulse
3. Discussion with subject experts
The next step involves getting the problem in the right
perspective through discussions with industry and
subject experts.
• Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful
information. Various new ideas can be developed
through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher must
discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who
have enough experience in the same area or in working
on similar problems.
• They could be found both within and outside the
company.
3. Review of existing literature
• All available literature concerning the problem at
hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined
before a definition of the research problem is given.
• the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant
theories in the field,
.
• . He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of
research already undertaken on related problems.

• Literature review helps a researcher to know if there

are certain gaps in the theories, or whether the
existing theories applicable to the problem under study
are inconsistent with each other, or whether the
findings of the different studies do not follow a pattern
consistent with the theoretical expectations and so on.

A literature review involves a comprehensive

compilation of the information obtained from both
published and unpublished sources of data which
belong to the specific interest are of the researcher
4. Organizational analysis(understanding the nature of
the problem)
Another significant source for deriving the research
problem is the industry and organizational data.

An organizational analysis is based on data regarding

the origin and history of the firm including its size,
assets, nature of business, location and resources.
It assists in arriving at the research problem.
5. Qualitative survey
When expert’s interview, secondary data and other
information are not enough to define the problem then
researcher may think about an exploratory
4. Organizational analysis(understanding the nature of
the problem)
Another significant source for deriving the research
problem is the industry and organizational data.

An organizational analysis is based on data regarding

the origin and history of the firm including its size,
assets, nature of business, location and resources.
It assists in arriving at the research problem.
5. Qualitative survey
When expert’s interview, secondary data and other
information are not enough to define the problem then
researcher may think about an exploratory
 qualitative survey to get an insight into the behavioral or
perceptual aspects of the problem. this may be based on
small samples and making use of focus group discussion
or pilot survey.

6. Management research problem

After the audit process of secondary review and interviews
and survey is over, the researcher has to focus and define
the issues of concern, that need to be investigated further,
in the form of an unambiguous and clearly-defined research
problem.

the word problem simply indicates the gaps in information

or knowledge base available to the researcher.
• The researcher has to identify and then refine the most
probable cause of the problem and formalize it as the
research problem.

• The components of a well defined problem which

address the problems of clarity and focus are,

• The unit of analysis: The unit of analysis is that

particular source from which the required information is
obtained. It can be individual(s), department ,
organization or an industry.
• Research variables: The research problem also
requires identification of the key variables under the
particular study. To carryout an investigation, it
becomes imperative to convert the concepts and
constructs to be studied into empirically testable and
observable variables.

Variables are classified into five categories, depending

on the role they play in the problem under
consideration.
(a) Dependent variable
(b)Independent variable
(c) Moderating variable
(d) Intervening variables
(e) Extraneous variables
• Moderating variables are the ones that have a strong
contingent effect on the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables. These
variables have to be considered in the expected
pattern of relationship as they modify the direction as
well as the magnitude of the independent - dependent
association.
• Intervening variable is a temporal occurrence which
follows the independent variable and precedes the
dependent variable.
• Extraneous variables are outside the domain of the
study. They are responsible for the chance variations
that are often observed in a research investigation. In
most cases, they are limited to a peculiar group.
 Moderating variable
• A variable that influences, or moderates, the relation
between two other variables and thus produces an
interaction effect.

• that is, a qualitative (e.g., sex, race, class) or quantitative

(e.g., level of reward) variable that affects the direction and/or
strength of the relation between dependent
and independent variables.

• The moderating variable may take the form of an indicator

variable (0/1 values), a categorical variable, or a continuous
variable.
•  example1 
• A strong relationship has been observed between
the quality of library facilities (X) and the performance
of the students (Y). 
•  Although this relationship is supposed to
be true generally, it is
nevertheless contingent on the interest and inclination of
the students. It means that only those students who
have the interest and inclination to use the library will
show improved performance in their studies.

In this relationship interest and inclination is moderati
ng
 variable i.e. which moderates the strength of the
association between X and Y variables
• Example 2
Buying intention depends on the main variables
Brand image
Brand awareness
Price
Availability
After-sales services
Store employee behavior
Location of the store

In addition to the above, the other variables, Age,

Gender,Income Occupation etc. affect the buying intention.
These variables are known as Moderating variables
 Intervening variables
• An intervening variable facilitates a better understanding of
the relationship between the independent and dependent
variables when the variables appear to not have a definite
connection.
• It is caused by the independent variable and is itself a cause
of the dependent variable.
Eg: A higher education (independent variable) typically
leads to a higher income (dependent variable).
Occupation is an intervening variable here between
education and income because it is causally affected
by education and itself affects income. In other
words, more schooling tends to mean a better job,
which in turn tends to bring a higher income.
• Intervening variables are not real things. They are
interpretations of observed facts, not facts themselves.
But they create the illusion of being facts.

EXAMPLES:
 Extraneous variables

• Extraneous Variables are undesirable variables that influence the

relationship between the variables that an experimenter is
examining.
• Extraneous variables are outside the domain of the study and
responsible for chance variations.

Eg: Product sales may be due to appearance, quality ,reputation,

packaging size etc., other than price and utility.
 Formulation of the Research Hypotheses
• Hypothesis is usually considered as the principal
instrument in research.
• Its main function is to suggest new experiments and
observations. In fact, many experiments are carried
out with the deliberate object of testing hypotheses.
What is Hypothesis?
Any assumption that researcher makes on the
probable direction of the results that might be
obtained on completion of the research process is
termed as a hypothesis.
• Hypothesis simply means a mere assumption or some
supposition to be proved or disproved.
• for a researcher hypothesis is a formal question that he
intends to resolve.
• The hypotheses is always in a declarative form.
Eg: a) Consumer liking for the electronic advertisement
for the new diet drink will have positive impact on
brand awareness of the drink.
b) High organizational commitment will lead to lower
turnover intention
c) “Students who receive counselling will show a
greater increase in creativity than students not
receiving counselling”
`
 d) “the automobile A is performing as well as
automobile B.”

Characteristics of hypothesis:

i) Hypothesis should be clear and precise.

ii) Hypothesis should be capable of being tested
iii) Hypothesis should state relationship between
variables
iv) Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must
be specific.
v) Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in
most simple terms
 vi)Hypothesis must be measurable and quantifiable
so that the statistical authenticity of the relationship
can be established
vii) Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to
the need for explanation.
A Hypothesis can be descriptive or relational, while the
former is a statement about the magnitude, trend or
behaviour of a population under study, the latter typically
states the expected relationship between two variables.
Eg. For Descriptive
1. The literacy rate in the city A is 100 percent
2. “the automobile A is performing as well as
automobile B.”
 3. The current advertisement for the diet drink will
have a 20-25 percent recall rate.

Eg for relational:

1. Higher the likeability of the advertisement, the

higher is the recall rate.

2. High organizational commitment will lead to lower

turnover intention
Further, Hypothesis could be one-tailed (directional, like
increase or decrease) or two-tailed
 Business research proposal
• Research always begins with a purpose. Either it is a
researcher’s own pursuit or it is carried out to address
and answer a specific managerial question and arrive
at an applicable solution.
• Research must be planned and systematic . The
framework or plan is termed as the research
proposal.

• “A research proposal is a formal document that

presents the research objectives, design of achieving
these objectives and the expected outcomes
/deliverables of the study”.
• RESEAARCH PROPOSAL
• It is a specific document that serves as a written contract
between the decision maker and the researcher
• It communicates to the decision maker the overall
research framework including the important activities that
would be under-taken and the expenses that are likely to
be incurred
• Proposals are often used to make a choice among
competing suppliers
• Proposals are also used to influence positively the
decision to oppose research
• The final research report may deviate from the research
proposal
• There is no one acceptable way of writing the research
proposal
 proposals are of three types:

The first is the academic research proposal generated

by academicians pursuing the study for fundamental
academic research

The second type of proposals are internal to an

organization and are submitted to the management for
approval and funding. They are highly focused nature
and are oriented towards solving immediate problems.
• The third type of proposals have the base or origin
within the company, but the scope and nature of the
study requires a more structured and objective
research.

Contents of a research proposal:

a) Executive summary: This is broad overview or
abstract that spells out the purpose and objective of
the study. A summary should be given about the
management problem/academic concern.
b)Background of the problem: This is about the
detailed background of the management problem. It
requires a sequential and systematic build-up to the
research questions and also a compelling reason for
pursuing the study.
c)Problem statement and research objectives: In this
step a clear definition of the problem which are turned
into specific objectives should be mentioned and this
should be crisp and to the point.
further, if the study is addressed towards testing some
assumption in the form of hypotheses, they have to be
clearly stated in this section.

d)Research design: This should be the working

section of the proposal as it needs to indicate the
logical and systematic approach intended to be
followed in order to achieve the listed objectives. In
this section population to be studied, sampling
process and plan, sample size and method of
selection should be specified.
d)Scheduling the research: The time-bound
dissemination of the study with the major phases of
the research has to be presented using charts
(CPM/PERT, ETC,.).scheduling the research will help
in monitoring and managing the research task

e)Results and outcomes of the research: In this step

a clear terms of contract or expected outcomes of the
study have to be spelt out. The expected deliverables
need to clearly demonstrate how the researcher
intends to link the findings of the proposed study
design to the stated research objectives.
f)Costing and budgeting the research: In all instances
of business research, both internal and external, an
estimated cost of the study is required.
Typical sample budget format with payments
schedules should be presented in this step.

g) References and Bibliography: The last section of

the proposal is to state the complete details of the
references used in the formulation of the research
proposal. In addition this data source and address has
to be attached with the document.
Example
1) Title
The JP Hotel Preferred Guest Card(PGC)Information Research
Proposal

2) Purpose of the Proposed Research Topic

To collect specific attitudinal, behavioural, motivational and general
demographic information to be used in addressing several key
questions jointly posed by management of Louis Benito Advertis-
ing and W.B.Johnson Properties, Inc., concerning the J P Hotel
PGC, a newly implemented marketing strategy within J P Hotel’s
overall marketing programme.
The key questions are:
• To what extent is PGC being used by card holders?
• How do card holders evaluate the card on the basis of the specific
privileges associated with it?
• What are the perceived benefits and weaknesses of the card?
• To what extend does PGC serve as an important factor in select-
ing a hotel?
• How often do the card holders use their PGC?
• When do the card holders use the card?
• Of those who have used the card what privileges have been used?
• How often were the privileges used?
• What general or specific improvements should be made regard-
ing card or the specific extended privileges?
• How do the card holders obtain the card?
• Should the PGC membership be complementary or should card
holders pay an annual fee?
• If latter, how much should it be? How much is the card holder
willing to pay?
• What is the demographic profile of the card holders?
3) Type of Study
• The research should be structured, non-disguised, descriptive,
exploratory, explanatory
• descriptive - questions identifying perceptual awareness, attitude
and image pattern of JP Hotel PGC; demographic profiles of
current card holders
• exploratory - investigation of possible improvements to the card ,
its present privileges and the price structure considerations
• explanatory - perceived benefits and weaknesses of the present
features of the card

4) (a) Target Population

are current cardholders of the PGC
Adults who Population frame is approximately 17,000 individuals
located across the USA
(b) Sample size
Statistically: 384
Realistically: 1,500
• assessment of likely response rate that could be expected by
using current methodological and control factors in the sampling
and questionnaire designs
• predetermined level of precision of not more than ± 5% sampling
error
• desired level confidence level of 95%
• general administrative costs and trade-offs
• desirability of having a prespecified minimum number of
randomly selected cardholders included in the analyses
5) (a) Sample Design
(b) Sampling Technique - probabilistic random sampling
(c) Data Collection Method -
~ Direct-mail survey
~ specifically tailored self-administered questionnaire
~ + a carefully designed cover letter that explains the generalities of
the research and inducements for respondent participation

6) Questionnaire
7) Potential Managerial Benefits of the Proposed Study
Data and information gathered from the research would provide
JPHotel with meaningful and useful insights toward:
• Better understanding what type of people hold and use PGC
• The extent of usage of the PGC
• Identifying specific feature problems that could serve as
indicators for evaluating (and possibly modifying) current
marketing and management strategies, policies or tactics
pertaining to PGC and its privileges
• Identifying specific insights concerning the promotion and
distribution of PGC to expanded marketable segments
The proposed research project would functionally serve:
• To initiate a customer-oriented database and collection system
to assist JPHotel’s better understanding its customers’ needs and
wants
• Database thus created would prove vital for the firm’s promotional
strategies
• Database would be important for future pricing and service
selection
8) Proposed Cost Structure for the Total Research Project
Source Cost ($)
Development 2,800
Questionnaire,Cover Typing
Letter Design and Pretest
Reproduction Reproduction (1,500)
Envelopes (3,000)
Sample Design and 1,620
Plan
Coding, setting of final codes 4,000
Data Entry
Coding and Predata Table Development
Analysis Computer Programming
Computer Time
Administration and Questionnaire Packet 3,840
Data Collection Assembly
Postage,P.O. Box Rental
Address Labels
Data Analysis, 6,500
Interpretation
Written Report, 2,850
Presentation
Total Proposed Research Project 21,610
9) Principal Researcher’s Profile
• Name and other details of the Research Organisation
• Name, academic and experience profile of the Research Project
Leader

10) Dummy Table of Data Results

Summary of overall Importance Differences of Selected Hotel-
Choice Criteria used by First-Time and Repeat Business Patrons

Importance Scale: A 6-point scale from 6 (“extremely important”) to

1 (“not at all important”)
SG: Significant groupings
(A): “Definitely strong factor” (C): “Moderately strong
factor”
(B): “Strong factor” (D): “Weak factor”
Example of a Research Proposal

Project Title:
Marketing Problem
Research on Your Consumers
Brief description of general problem; reason for
conducting research
by bidding Marketing Research Firm Sum up preliminary discussions
between researcher & manager; demonstrate
knowledge of situation & particular info needs
1 2

Purpose of Research Project Data Sources & Methodology

Describe secondary data to be used
State goals & objectives, w rationales
Describe how primary data will be gathered
Describe scope of project (i.e., what will not be
(surveys, experiments)
investigated)
Keep methods descriptions non-technical
Spell out specific questions to be answered
Describe sample and proposed size
Address possible limitations due to time or budget
Include draft of questionnaire or focus group
constraints (to avoid later disagreement)
3 moderator outline (etc.), if applicable 4

Time and Personnel

Provide time estimates for each phase of the
research
Specify personnel required and their rates of pay
Calculate non-personnel costs (e.g., supplies,
printing, mailing, etc.)

5
 Scheduling the research project

• Setting the project start date

• Setting the project completion date
• Selecting the project methodology or project life cycle to be
used
• Determining the scope of the project in terms of the phases of
the selected project methodology or project life cycle
• Identifying or selecting the project review methods to be used
• Identifying any predetermined interim milestone or other
critical dates which must be met.
• Listing tasks, by project phase, in the order in which they might
be accomplished.