Alternating-Current Circuits

• The symbol for an AC • The voltage varies between

voltage source is Vo and - Vo since a sine
function varies between +1
and −1.
• A graph of voltage as a
• An example of an AC
function of time is
source is

• where the maximum

value Vo is called the
amplitude
An Alternating Voltage may be generated
by rotating a coil in a magnetic field or by
rotating a magnetic field with in a
stationary coil.
The value of the generated voltage depends
in each cause
upon the number of turns in the coil

strength of the field

speed at which coil or magnetic field

rotate.
Equation of Voltage
• The sine function is periodic in time. This means that the value of
the voltage at time t will be exactly the same at a later time t′=t+ T
where T is the period.
• Cycle
– One complete set of positive and negative values of
alternating quantity
• Time Period
– Time taken by an alternating quantity to complete
one cycle (T).
• Frequency
– The number of cycles/second
• Amplitude
– The maximum value, positive or negative , of an
alternating quantity
Measurements of AC magnitude
• Phase:
– The phase of an alternating variable at any
instant is the time interval that has elapsed
since the instantaneous value of the variable
last passed through zero from negative to
positive direction.
– This interval is measured either
• In terms of a fraction of the time period of
the waveform as φ=t1/T, where φ is the
phase and t is the time elapsed
• More commonly in terms of the time angle
f=2π φ=2π(t1/T) =ωt1
PHASE DIFFERENCE
R.M.S Value
Average value
Form factor

peak factor
AC resistor circuits
 Purely Inductive Load
• As we shall see below, a purely inductive circuit
corresponds to infinite capacitance C = infinite
and zero resistance R = 0.
Purely Capacitive Load
Magnetic Circuits
• A magnet is a material or object that produces
a magnetic field.

• This magnetic field is invisible but is

responsible for the most notable property of a
magnet:
 Magnetic Fields
 The strength of a magnetic field in a given region is
directly related to the density of flux lines in that
region.
 Unlike poles of two permanent magnets are brought
together the magnets will attract,
 like poles are brought together, the magnets will repel
 Magneto Motive Force

The amount of flux density setup in the core is dependent upon five factors

The current
Number of turns
material of the magnetic core
length of core and
the cross-sectional area of the core.
More current and the more turns of wire we use, the greater will be the magnetising effect.
We call this product of turns and current the magneto motive force
MMF = NI unit is :Ampere Turns
 In the region surrounding a Permanent Magnet there
exists a magnetic field, which can be represented by
Magnetic Flux Lines similar to electric flux lines.

 Magnetic Flux Lines differ from electric flux lines in

that they don’t have an origin or termination point.

 Magnetic Flux Lines radiate from the North Pole to the

South Pole through the magnetic bar.
General Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force
They never cross one another.
Their density decreases with increasing distance from
the poles.
They flow from the south pole to the north pole within a
material and north pole to south pole in air.
 Flux and Flux Density
 The number of flux lines per unit area is called flux density (B).
Flux density is measured in teslas (T).
 Calculating Flux When Area is Not
Perpendicular to Field

The flux penetrating the area

A when the normal vector n n
makes an angle of q with the A q
B-field is:
a
B
  BA cosq

The angle q is the complement of the angle a that the

plane of the area makes with B field. (Cos q = Sin a)
 Example 1: A current loop has an area of 40 cm2 and is
placed in a 3-T B-field at the given angles. Find the flux 
through the loop in each case.

x x x x n n
x x x x n q
A
x x x x
x x x x

A = 40 cm2 (a) q = 00 (b) q = 900 (c) q = 600

(a)  = BA cos 00 = (3 T)(0.004 m2)(1);   12.0 mWb

(b)  = BA cos 900 = (3 T)(0.004 m2)(0);   0 mWb

(c)  = BA cos 600 = (3 T)(0.004 m2)(0.5);   6.00 mWb

 DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FLUX LINES

The direction of the magnetic flux lines can be found by

placing the thumb of the right hand in the direction of
conventional current flow and noting the direction of the
fingers (commonly called the right hand rule).
• MAGNETIC FIELD • The magnetic field
STRENGTH, H produces a magnetic flux,

• The magnitude of the – flux has units of weber
field is defined by the (Wb)
magnetic field strength, • Strength of the flux at a
H , where particular location is
measured in term of the
HI magnetic flux density, B
l
– where l is the length of the
magnetic circuit

H  IN
l
 Relationship Between B & H
B = μH
μ =Permeability
Permeability of free space (vacuum) is

Wb
 0  4 10 7

AM
The ratio of the permeability of a material to that of
free space is called relative permeability.


r 
0
 Analysis of simple magnetic circuit
• Choose a closed path which
follows the average
magnetic field line around
the interior of the core.
Length of this path is called
the mean magnetic path F=R ϕ
length l
• H l = Ni
• F =H l
• Since H = B / μ and
B = ϕ / a,
• we can express F as
 Leakage Flux
• Leakage flux is defined as the magnetic flux which
does not follow the particular intended path in a
magnetic circuit.
• When a current is passed through a solenoid, magnetic
flux is produced by it.
• Most of the flux is set up in the core of the solenoid and
passes through the particular path that is through the air
gap and is utilized in the magnetic circuit.
• This flux is known as Useful flux φu.
• As practically it is not possible that all the flux in the
circuit follows a particular intended path and sets up in
the magnetic core and thus some of the flux also sets up
around the coil or surrounds the core of the coil, and is
not utilized for any work in the magnetic circuit.
• This type of flux which is not used for any work is
called Leakage Flux and is denoted by φl.
• Therefore, the total flux Φ produced by the solenoid in
the magnetic circuit is the sum of the leakage flux and
the useful flux and is given by the equation shown below
 Leakage coefficient

• The ratio of the total flux produced to the useful

flux set up in the air gap of the magnetic circuit is
called leakage coefficient or leakage factor.
• It is denoted by (λ).
 FRINGING EFFECT
• The useful flux when sets up in the
air gap, it tends to bulge outward
at (b and b’) as show in figure,
because of this bulging the
effective area of the air gap
increases and the flux density of
the air gap decreases. This effect
is known as Fringing.
• Fringing is directly proportional to
the length of the air gap that means
if the length increases the fringing
effect will also be more and vice
versa.
Simple Problems
............
An electromagnet has an air gap of
4 mm and flux density in the gap is
2
1.3 Wb/m . Determine the ampere-
turns for the gap
 Hg = B / μo μr

Hg =1.3/ 4 π * 10-7 * 1

=1.035*106 AT/m
Ampere Turns required for the gap
= Hg lg = 1.035*106 *4*10-3
A wrought iron bar 30 cm long and 2 cm in
diameter is bent into a circular shape as given
in fig. It is then wound with 500 turns of wire.
Calculate the current required to produce a
flux of 0.5 mWb in magnetic circuit with an air
gap of 1 mm; μr (iron) = 4000
1. A magnetic pole face has a rectangular
section having dimensions 250 mm by 150
mm. If the total flux emerging from the pole
is 150 μ Wb, calculate the flux density.

2. A magnetizing force of 8000 A/m is applied

to a circular magnetic circuit of mean
diameter 30 cm by passing a current through
a coil wound on the circuit is 750 turned. If
the coil is uniformly wound, calculate the
current flow in this circuit.
3 A section through a magnetic circuit of uniform
cross-sectional area 2 cm2. The cast steel core
has a mean length of 25 cm. The air gap is 1
mm wide and the coil has 5000 turns,
Determine the current in the coil to produce a
flux density of 0.80T in the air gap, assuming
that all the flux passes through both magnetic
circuit. Magnetic field intensity (H)=750AT/m.
 A toroidal air cored coil with 2500 turns has a
mean radius of 25 cm, diameter of each turn being 6 cm.
If the current in the coil is 10 A, find MMF, Flux, Flux
density.

• Solution
• N= 2500
• I =10 A
• Rm= 25 cm
• MMf =----------------
• Flux=--------------
• Flux Density =-----------
Solution :
• MMF = NI
– 2500*10=25000 AT
• Flux = MMF/Reluctance
– Reluctance = L/μa
L= 2πRm =2π(25/100) = 1.57 m
a= πd2/4 = (π/4)*(6*10-2)2=2.8*10-3m2
μ= μo μr -7
= 4π*10 *1

• Flux Density = flux/area of cross

 Magnetic circuit below relative permeability of the core
material is 6000 its rectangular cross section is 2 cm by 3 cm. The coil
has 500 turns. Find the current needed to establish a flux density in the
gap of Bgap=0.25 T.
Medium length of the magnetic path in the core is
lcore=4*6-0.5=23.5cm, and
the cross section area is Acore= 2cm*3cm = 6*10-4 m2
the core permeability is
 Wb 
core  r 0  6000  4  10 7 3
 7.54  10 
 Am 
 lcore 23.5  102 4 A 
R core    5.195  10 Wb 
core Acore 7.54  103  6  104
the gap area is computed by adding the gap length to each dimension of cross-section:

Agap  2cm  0.5cm  3cm  0.5cm  8.75 104 m2  

thus the gap reluctance is:

lgap 0.5  102 6 A 

R gap    4.547  10 Wb 
0 Agap 4  107  8.75  104
  A
R  R gap  R core  4.6  106 
Wb 

  Bgap Agap  0.25  8.75 104  2.188 104 Wb

F   R  4.6  106  2.188  104  1006A

 2.012A
F 1006
i 
N 500
 Faraday’s Law
• 1st law: Whenever magnetic flux linking with a coil
changes with time an emf is induced in that coil or
whenever a moving conductor cuts the magnetic flux, an
emf is induced in the conductor.
 Faraday’s Law of Induction

• 2nd law: The magnitude of the induced emf is equal to

the product of the number of turns of the coil and the
rate of change of flux linkage.
• .
 UNIT II: DC MACHINES (Qualitative
Treatment only)
• Constructional details and operating principle of D.C.
generators

• Emf equation

• DC Generator Characteristic

• Principle of operation of D.C. motors

• DC motor Characteristic - Starting.

Construction Working
principle of DC
machine
 Electrical
Machines

Static Rotating

Transformer DC Machines AC Machines

Generators Motors Generators Motors

Induction Synchronous Induction Synchronous

 • MOTORS –
• Generators –
• which convert • which convert electrical
mechanical energy into energy into mechanical
electrical energy energy
Generators
 – This energy conversion is based on the principle of
production of dynamically induced emf.
• Construction of a DC Machine:
• The Dc Generators and Dc Motors have the
Same General Construction.

• In fact, when the machine is being assembled,

the workmen usually do not know whether it
is a Dc Generator or Motor.
Constructional Parts • Yoke:
1. Yoke – The outer frame of a dc
2. Poles and pole shoes machine is called as yoke.
3. Field winding – It is made up of cast iron or
4. Armature core steel.
5. Armature winding – It not only provides
6. Commutator and brushes mechanical strength to the
whole assembly but also
carries the magnetic flux
produced by the field winding
• Poles and pole shoes: Field winding:
– Poles are joined to the
• They are usually made
yoke with the help of bolts of copper.
or welding. • Field coils are former
– They carry field winding wound and placed on
each pole and are
and pole shoes are fastened
connected in series.
to them. • They are wound in such
Pole shoes serve two a way that, when
purposes; energized, they form
alternate North and
– (i) They support field coils
South poles
(ii) Spread out the flux in
air gap uniformly
• Armature core: • It may be provided with air
– Armature core is the rotor ducts for the axial air flow
of the machine. for cooling purposes.
– It is cylindrical in shape Armature is keyed to the
with slots to carry shaft
armature winding. • Practical D.C machines
– The armature is built up of have air gaps ranging from
thin (about 0.4 to 0.6 mm 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm.
thick) laminated circular
steel disks for reducing
eddy current losses.
Armature Core
• Armature winding:
– It is usually a former – lap winding
(OR)
wound copper coil which
– wave winding.
rests in armature slots.
– Double layer lap or wave
– The armature conductors
windings are generally used.
are insulated from each
– A double layer winding
other and also from the
means that each armature
armature core.
slot will carry two different
– Armature winding can be
coils.
wound by one of the two
methods;
Armature Winding in a DC Machine
Lap Winding
Used in high current low voltage circuits
Number of parallel paths equals number of brushes
or poles
Wave Winding
Used in high voltage low current circuits
Number of parallel paths always equals 2
• Commutator and brushes:
– Physical connection to the armature winding is
made through a commutator-brush arrangement.
– The function of a commutator, in a dc generator,
is to collect the current generated in armature
conductors.
– Whereas, in case of a dc motor, commutator helps
in providing current to the armature conductors.
– A commutator consists of a set of copper
segments which are insulated from each other.
Commutator
• A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the
alternating voltage generated in the armature winding into
direct voltage across the brushes.
• The number of segments is equal to the number of armature
coils.
• Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the
commutator is keyed to the shaft.
• Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest
on commutator segments and slide on the segments when the
commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or
supply the current.
• Working Principle Of A DC Generator:
– According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
induction, whenever a conductor is placed in a varying
magnetic field (OR a conductor is moved in a magnetic
field), an emf (electromotive force) gets induced in the
conductor.
– The magnitude of induced emf can be calculated from
the emf equation of dc generator.
– If the conductor is provided with the closed path, the
induced current will circulate within the path.
– In a DC generator, field coils produce an electromagnetic
field and the armature conductors are rotated into the field.
– Thus, an electromagnetically induced emf is generated in
the armature conductors.
– The direction of induced current is given by Fleming’s right
hand rule
Armature Reaction
Single Loop DC Generator
• Single loop of conductor of rectangular shape is
placed between two opposite poles of magnet.
• Let's us consider, the rectangular loop of
conductor is ABCD which rotates inside the
magnetic field about its own axis ab.
• When the loop rotates from its vertical position to
its horizontal position, it cuts the flux lines of the
field.
• As during this movement two sides, i.e. AB and
CD of the loop cut the flux lines there will be an
emf induced in these both of the sides (AB &
BC) of the loop
• As the loop is closed there will be a current circulating
through the loop.
• The direction of the current can be determined by
Flemming's right hand Rule
Fleming’s Right hand rule
Used to determine the direction of
emf induced in a conductor
The middle finger , the fore finger
and thumb of the right hand are
kept at right angles to one another
The fore finger represent the
direction of magnetic field
The thumb represent the direction
of motion of the conductor
The middle finger will indicate the
direction of the inducted emf
• At this position the tangential motion of the
sides of the loop is parallel to the flux lines of
the field.
• Hence there will be no question of flux cutting
and consequently there will be no current in
the loop
• The tangential motion of the side of the loop is
perpendicular to the flux lines, hence rate of flux
cutting is maximum here and according to Flemming's
right hand rule, at this position current flows from B to
A and on other side from D to C.
 EMF Equation of DC Generator

• The derivation of EMF equation for DC

Generator has two parts:

– Induced EMF of one conductor

– Induced EMF of the generator

 Derivation for Induced EMF of One
Armature Conductor
• For one revolution of the conductor,
– Let, Φ = Flux produced by each pole in Weber (Wb)

– P = number of poles in the DC generator

– Total flux produced by all the poles = Φ * P

– Time taken to complete one revolution = 60/ N

– N is the speed of the armature conductor in rpm.

• Now, according to Faraday’s law of induction, the
induced emf of the armature conductor is denoted by
“e” which is equal to rate of cutting the flux.
 Induced EMF of the generator
• Let us suppose there are
– Z total numbers of conductor in a generator, and arranged in
such a manner that all parallel paths are always in series.
Here,

– A = number of parallel paths

– Then, Z/A = number of conductors connected in series

– We know that Induced emf in each path is same across the line

– Therefore, Induced emf of DC generator

• E = Emf of one conductor × number of conductor

connected in series.
Simple wave wound generator Numbers of
parallel paths are only 2 = A.

Lap-wound generator Here, number of

parallel paths is equal to number of
conductors in one path i.e.
P = A Therefore,
 Types of DC Generator
• DC generators can be classified in two main
categories
– (i) Separately excited
– (ii) Self-excited.
Separately Excited:
In this type, field coils are energized from
an independent external DC source.
• Self Excited
In this type, field coils are energized from
the current produced by the generator itself.
 Methods of Excitation
Excitation

Separate Excitation Self Excitation

Series Excitation Shunt Excitation Compound Excitation

Cumulative Differential
Short Shunt Long Shunt
Compound Compound

107
 Separately Excited DC Generator

A DC generators whose field winding or coil is energized by a

separate or external DC source is called a separately excited DC
Generator.
The flux produced by the poles depends upon the field current with
the unsaturated region of magnetic material of the poles.
i.e. flux is directly proportional to the field current.
But in the saturated region, the flux remains constant.
 Shunt wound DC generators

• Self-excited DC Generator is a device, in which the

current to the field winding is supplied by the generator
itself.
 Series Wound Generator

A series-wound generator the

field coils are connected in series
with the armature winding.
 Types of Generator
DC Generator

Permanent Magnet Separate Excited Self Excited

Series Wound Shunt Wound Compound Wound

Cumulative Differential Short Shunt Long Shunt

Compound Compound
111
 Types of Generator
Permanent Magnet Generator

When the flux in the magnetic circuit is

established by the help of permanent
magnets then it is known as Permanent
magnet dc generator.

This type of dc generators generates very low power. So, they are rarely
found in industrial applications.
They are normally used in small applications like dynamos in motor cycles.
 Types of Generator
Separately Excited Generator
These are the generators whose field
magnets are energized by some
external dc source such as battery .

Ia = Armature current
IL = Load current
V = Terminal voltage
Eg = Generated emf

Voltage drop in the armature = Ia × Ra (Ra is the armature resistance)

Let, Ia = IL = I (say)
Then, voltage across the load, V = Eg - IRa
Power generated, Pg = Eg×I
Power delivered to the external load, PL = V×I.
 Types of Generator
Self Excited Generator
These are the generators whose field magnets are energized by the electric
current supplied by themselves.
In these type of machines field coils are internally connected with the
armature.
Due to residual magnetism some flux is always present in the poles. When
the armature is rotated some emf is induced. Hence some induced electric
current is produced.

As the pole flux strengthened, it will produce more armature emf, which
cause further increase of electric current through the field.
This increased field electric current further raises armature emf and this
cumulative phenomenon continues until the excitation reaches to the rated
value.
114
 Types of Generator
1. Series Wound Generator

In these type of generators, the field windings

are connected in series with armature conductors
whole electric current flows through the field
coils as well as the load.
As series field winding carries full load electric
current it is designed with relatively few turns
of thick wire. The electrical resistance of series
field winding is therefore very low (nearly
0.5Ω ).
Rsc = Series winding resistance, Isc = Current flowing through the series field

Ia = Isc = IL=I (say)

Voltage across the load V = Eg -I(Ra+Rsc), Power generated Pg = Eg×I
Power delivered to the load PL = V×I
 Types of Generator
2. Shunt Wound Generator

In these type of DC generators the field

windings are connected in parallel with
armature conductors
In shunt wound generators the voltage in the
field winding is same as the voltage across the
terminal.
The effective power across the load
Rsh = Shunt winding resistance will be maximum when IL will be
Ish = Current flowing through the shunt maximum.
field So, it is required to keep shunt
Ia=Ish + IL field electric current as small as
possible.
Shunt field current, Ish = V/Rsh For this purpose the resistance of the
Voltage across the load, V = Eg-Ia Ra shunt field winding generally kept
Power generated, Pg= Eg×Ia high (100 Ω) and large no of turns are
Power delivered to the load, PL = V×IL used for the desired emf.
 Types of Generator
3. Compound Wound Generator
In a compound-wound generator, there are two sets of field
windings on each pole—one is in series and the other in parallel
with the armature. This combination of windings is called
compound wound DC generator.

Compound wound generators have both series field winding and

shunt field winding. One winding is placed in series with the
armature and the other is placed in parallel with the armature.

This type of DC generators may be of two types-

short shunt compound wound generator and
long shunt compound wound generator
 Types of Generator
3. Compound Wound Generator (Short Shunt)

The generators in which only shunt

field winding is in parallel with the
armature winding as shown in figure.
Series field current, Isc = IL
Shunt field current, Ish = (V+Isc Rsc)/Rsh
Armature current, Ia = Ish + IL
Voltage across the load, V = Eg - Ia Ra - Isc Rsc
Power generated, Pg = Eg×Ia
Power delivered to the load, PL=V×IL
 Types of Generator
3. Compound Wound Generator (Long Shunt)

The generators in which shunt field

winding is in parallel with both series field
and armature winding as shown in figure.

Shunt field current, Ish=V/Rsh

Armature current Ia= series field current Isc= IL+Ish
Voltage across the load V=Eg-IaRa-Isc Rsc
=Eg-Ia (Ra+Rsc) [∴Ia=Ics]
Power generated, Pg= Eg×Ia
Power delivered to the load, PL=V×IL
 Types of Generator
3. Compound Wound Generator (Cumulative & Differential
Compound)
In a compound wound generator, the shunt field is stronger than
the series field.
When the series field assists the shunt field, generator is said to
be commutatively compound wound.
On the other hand if series field opposes the shunt field, the
generator is said to be differentially compound wound.
 DC Generator
Ia
Ea  Nz p
60 a Ra If +
+
V  Ea  Ia R a L
L VT O
A
V E Rf D
I  L
f R
f - -
Ia  I  I
f L
Note: VT = VL
i.e. Terminal Voltage is the Load Voltage
 DC Generator Characteristic
• Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)
– Generated emf at no load (E0) and the field current (If) at a
given fixed speed

• Internal or Total characteristic (Eg /Ia)

– relation between the on-load generated emf (Eg) and the
armature current (Ia)

• External characteristic (V/IL)

– relation between terminal voltage (V) & the load current (IL).
 Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)
• This characteristic is also known as magnetic
characteristic or no-load saturation characteristic.

• The O.C.C. curve is just the magnetization curve and it is

practically similar for all type of generators.

• The data for O.C.C. curve is obtained by operating the generator at

no load and keeping a constant speed.

• Field current is gradually increased and the corresponding terminal

voltage is recorded.
• For shunt or series excited generators, the field winding is
disconnected from the machine and connected across an
external supply.
• Now, from the emf equation of dc generator, we know that
Eg = kɸ.
• Hence, the generated emf should be directly proportional to
field flux (and hence, also directly proportional to the field
current).
• However, even when the field current is zero, some amount of
emf is generated (represented by OA in the figure below).
• This initially induced emf is due to the fact that there exists
some residual magnetism in the field poles.
• Due to the residual magnetism, a small initial emf is induced
in the armature.
• This initially induced emf aids the existing residual
flux, and hence, increasing the overall field flux.
• This consequently increases the induced emf. Thus,
O.C.C. follows a straight line.
• However, as the flux density increases, the poles get
saturated and the ɸ becomes practically constant.
• Thus, even we increase the If further, ɸ remains
constant and hence, Eg also remains constant.
• Hence, the O.C.C. curve looks like the B-H
characteristic.
Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)
 Internal AND external
characteristic curves
for each type of generator.
 Internal or Total characteristic (Eg /Ia)
• An internal characteristic curve shows the relation
between the on-load generated emf (Eg) and the armature
current (Ia)

• The on-load generated emf Eg is always less than E0 due

to the armature reaction.

• Eg can be determined by subtracting the drop due to

demagnetizing effect of armature reaction from no-load
voltage E0. Therefore, internal characteristic curve lies
below the O.C.C. curve.
 External characteristic (V/IL)
• This characteristic curve shows the relation between terminal
voltage (V) and the load current (IL).

• Terminal voltage V is less than the generated emf Eg due to

voltage drop in the armature circuit.

• External characteristics are very important to determine the

suitability of a generator for a given purpose.

• Therefore, This type of characteristic is sometimes also called

as Performance Characteristic or Load Characteristic.
 Characteristics of Separately Excited DC Generator
• If there is no armature reaction & armature voltage drop, the voltage will remain
constant for any load current.
• Thus, the straight line AB in above figure represents the no-load voltage vs. IL
• Due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction, the on-load generated emf
is less than the no-load voltage.
• The curve AC represents the on-load generated emf Eg vs load current IL i.e.
internal characteristic (as Ia = IL for a separately excited dc generator).
• Also, the terminal voltage is lesser due to ohmic drop occurring in the armature
and brushes. The curve AD represents the terminal voltage vs. load current
Characteristics Of DC Shunt Generator
Characteristics Of DC Series Generator
DC MOTOR
• Construction
• Working principle of DC motor
• Types of DC motor
• Application of DC motor
 When current flows in a conductor it produces a
magnetic field about it - as shown in (a) below
– when the current-carrying conductor is within an
externally generated magnetic field, the fields interact
and a force is exerted on the conductor - as in (b)
• Working Principle Of A DC Motor
– A motor is an electrical machine which converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy.
– The principle of working of a DC motor
• is that "whenever a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
mechanical force".
– The direction of this force is given by Fleming's left
hand rule and
– it's magnitude is given by F = BIL.
• Where, B = magnetic flux density,
• I = current and
• L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.
• Fleming's left hand rule:
– If we stretch the first finger, second finger and thumb
of our left hand to be perpendicular to each other
– Direction of Magnetic Field is represented by the first
finger,

– Direction of the Current is represented by second finger

– Direction of the Force is represented by Thumb
 APPLICATION OF DC MOTOR
– laundry washing machines,
• D.C. Series Motor. – elevators,
– it has High Starting Torque and – conveyors,
Variable Speed,
– grinders and
– Heavy Duty applications such as
– small printing presses etc.
• Electric Locomotives,
• Steel Rolling Mills, • Cumulative Compound
• Hoists, Motor.
• Lifts and Cranes. – It is a varying-speed motor with
high starting torque and is used for
• D.C. Shunt Motor. • driving compressors,
– It has Medium Starting Torque • variable-head centrifugal
and a nearly Constant speed. pumps,
• driving constant-speed line • rotary presses,
shafts,
• circular saws,
• lathes,
• shearing machines,
• vacuum cleaners,
• elevators and continuous
• wood-working machines, conveyors etc.
 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor
1. Torque Vs Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia)
2. Speed Vs Armature current characteristic (N/Ia)
3. Speed Vs Torque characteristic (N/Ta)

Torque Vs Armature current characteristic

DC Shunt Motor
• Ta ∝ Φia
• flux Φ is constant
Speed Vs Armature Current Characteristic Speed Vs Armature Torque
 Characteristics of DC Series Motor

Ta/Ia Characteristic
N/Ia Characteristic
Ta ∝ ΦIa.
Ta ∝ Φia
∴ Ta ∝ Ia2 before saturation
• N ∝ Eb/Φ
Ta ∝ Ia after saturation
N/Ta Characteristic (Mechanical)
AC Machines
 Single Phase Induction Motor
– similar to three phase induction motor
– squirrel cage rotor,
– These are manufactured in fractional kilowatt range
– Applications
–ceiling fans,
–food mixers,
–refrigerators,
–vacuum cleaners,
–portable drills,
–hair driers,
 Working Principle of Single Phase Induction Motor
• When the stator of a single phase motor is fed with single
phase supply, it produces alternating flux in the stator
winding.
• The alternating current flowing through stator winding
causes induced current in the rotor bars (of the squirrel
cage rotor ) according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction.
• This induced current in the rotor will also produce
alternating flux. Even after both alternating fluxes are set
up, the motor fails to start.
• However, if the rotor is given a initial start by external
force in either direction, then motor accelerates to its final
speed and keeps running with its rated speed.
• This behaviour of a single phase motor can be explained
by double-field revolving theory.
 ns  n
s
ns
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Types of single phase induction motor
Split-phase motor
Capacitor start motor
Permanent capacitor run motor
Capacitor start capacitor run motor
Shaded pole motor
 The main winding
– has very low resistance and a high
inductive reactance
whereas the starting winding
has high resistance and low
inductive reactance.
• The current in the main winding
(IM) lag behind the supply voltage
V almost by the 90-degree angle.
• The current in the auxiliary
winding IA is approximately in
phase with the line voltage.
• The time phase difference ϕ is not
90 degrees, but of the order of 30
degrees. This phase difference is
enough to produce a rotating
magnetic field.
Capacitor Start Induction Motor
Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor
Three Phase Induction Motor
 Construction of Three Phase Induction Motor

• The three phase induction motor is the most widely

used electrical motor.
• Almost 80% of the mechanical power used by
industries is provided by three phase induction motors
because of its
– simple and rugged construction,
– low cost,
– good operating characteristics,
– absence of commutator and
– good speed regulation
• Stator:
– As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of
induction motor.
– A stator winding is placed in the stator of induction
motor and the three phase supply is given to it.
• Rotor:
– The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. .
– The rotor is connected to the mechanical load
through the shaft.
• The rotor of the three phase induction motor are further
classified as
– Squirrel cage rotor,
– Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor.
• Depending upon the type of rotor construction used the
– Squirrel cage induction motor,
– Slip ring induction motor or wound induction motor or phase
wound induction motor.
• The construction of stator for both the kinds of three
phase induction motor remains the same.
• The other parts, are:
– Shaft for transmitting the torque to the load. This shaft is
made up of steel.
– Bearings for supporting the rotating shaft.
– One of the problems with electrical motor is the production
of heat during its rotation. In order to overcome this problem
we need fan for cooling.
 – For receiving external electrical connection Terminal box is
needed.
– There is a small distance between rotor and stator which
usually varies from 0.4 mm to 4 mm. Such a distance is
called air gap.
• Stator
– Stator frame,
– Stator core,
– Stator winding or field winding
 Stator Frame
• It is the outer most part of the three phase induction
motor.
• Its main function is to support the stator core and the
field winding.
• It acts as a covering
• it provide protection and mechanical strength to all
the inner parts of the induction motor.
• The frame is either made up of die cast or fabricated
steel.
• The frame of three phase induction motor should be very
strong and rigid as the air gap length of three phase
induction motor is very small,
 Stator Core
• The main function of the stator core is to carry the
alternating flux.
• In order to reduce the eddy current loss, the stator core
is laminated.
• These laminated types of structure are made up of
stamping which is about 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick.
• All the stamping are stamped together to form stator
core, which is then housed in stator frame.
• The stamping is generally made up of silicon steel,
which helps to reduce the hysteresis loss occurring in
motor.
Stator Frame

Stator Core
 Stator Winding or Field Winding
• The slots on the periphery of stator core of the three phase
induction motor carries three phase windings.
• This three phase winding is supplied by three phase ac supply.
• The three phases of the winding are connected either in star or
delta depending upon which type of starting method is used.
• The squirrel cage motor is mostly started by star – delta starter
and hence the stator of squirrel cage motor is delta connected.
• The slip ring three phase induction motor are started by
inserting resistances so, the stator winding of slip ring induction
motor can be connected either in star or delta.
• The winding wound on the stator of three phase induction
motor is also called field winding and when this winding is
excited by three phase ac supply it produces a rotating
magnetic field
 Developing a Rotating Magnetic Field
• The stator is connected to a three-phase AC power source.
– The windings A1 and A2 connected to phase A.
– The windings B1 and B2 will be connected to phase B,
– The windings and C1 and C2 will be connected to phase C of
the power supply.
Note that

• The windings A1, B1, and C1

are 120° apart.

• The windings A2, B2, and C2

also are 120° apart.

• This corresponds to the 120°

separation between each
electrical phase.
• When AC voltage is applied to the stator, the magnetic
field developed in a set of phase coils depends on the
direction of current flow.
• This chart assumes that a positive current flow in the A1,
B1 or C1 windings results in a north pole.
 Synchronous speed (NS)
• The speed of the rotating magnetic field is
referred to as the synchronous speed (NS) of
the motor.
• Synchronous speed is equal to 120 times the
frequency (F), divided by the number of
motor poles (P).
 Types of Three Phase Induction Motor
• Squirrel cage three phase induction motor
– The rotor of the squirrel cage three phase induction
motor is cylindrical in shape and have slots on its
periphery.
– The slots are not made parallel to each other but are
bit skewed as the skewing prevents magnetic locking
of stator and rotor teeth and makes the working of
motor more smooth and quieter.
– The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminium bars or
copper bars.
• These aluminium bar or copper bars are called rotor
conductors and are placed in the slots on the
periphery of the rotor.
• The rotor conductors are permanently shorted by the
copper or aluminium rings called the end rings.
• In order to provide mechanical strength these rotor
conductor are braced to the end ring and hence form a
complete closed circuit resembling like a cage and
hence got its name as "squirrel cage induction motor".
• The squirrel cage rotor winding is made symmetrical.
• The rotor resistance is very small and it is not
possible to add external resistance as the bars are
permanently shorted.
• The absence of slip ring and brushes make the
construction of Squirrel cage three phase induction
motor very simple and robust and hence widely used
three phase induction motor.
• These motors have the advantage of adapting any
number of pole pairs.
End Ring
SQUIRREL CAGE ROTOR
• Advantages of squirrel cage induction rotor-
• Its construction is very simple and rugged.

• As there are no brushes and slip ring, these

motors requires less maintenance.
• Applications:
– lathes,
– drilling machine,
– fan,
– blower printing machines etc
Slip ring or wound three phase
induction motor
SLIP RING OR WOUNDED ROTOR
• In this type of three phase induction motor the rotor is wound
for the same number of poles as that of stator but it has less
number of slots and has less turns per phase of a heavier
conductor.
• The rotor also carries star or delta winding similar to that of
stator winding.
• The rotor consists of numbers of slots and rotor winding are
placed inside these slots.
• The three end terminals are connected together to form star
connection.
• As its name indicates three phase slip ring induction motor
consists of slip rings connected on same shaft as that of rotor.
• The three ends of three phase windings are permanently
connected to these slip rings.
• The external resistance can be easily connected through
the brushes and slip rings and hence used for speed
control and improving the starting torque of three phase
induction motor.
• The brushes are used to carry current to and from the
rotor winding.
• These brushes are further connected to three phase star
connected resistances.
• At starting, the resistance are connected in rotor circuit
and is gradually cut out as the rotor pick up its speed.
• When the motor is running the slip ring are shorted by
connecting a metal collar, which connect all slip ring
together and the brushes are also removed.
• This reduces wear and tear of the brushes.
• Due to presence of slip rings and brushes the rotor
construction becomes somewhat complicated
therefore it is less used as compare to squirrel cage
induction motor.
– Advantages of slip ring induction motor -
• It has high starting torque and low starting
current.
• Possibility of adding additional resistance to
control speed.
• Application:
– Slip ring induction motor are used where high
starting torque is required i.e in hoists, cranes,
elevator etc.
Slip ring or phase wound Induction motor Squirrel cage induction motor
Construction is complicated due to presence of slip ring
Construction is very simple
and brushes
The rotor consists of rotor bars which are
The rotor winding is similar to the stator winding
permanently shorted with the help of end rings
We can easily add rotor resistance by using slip ring and Since the rotor bars are permanently shorted, its not
brushes possible to add external resistance
Due to presence of external resistance high starting torque
Staring torque is low and cannot be improved
can be obtained
Slip ring and brushes are present Slip ring and brushes are absent
Frequent maintenance is required due to presence of
Less maintenance is required
brushes

The construction is complicated and the presence of The construction is simple and robust and it is
brushes and slip ring makes the motor more costly cheap as compared to slip ring induction motor

This motor is rarely used only 10 % industry uses slip ring Due to its simple construction and low cost. The
induction motor squirrel cage induction motor is widely used

Rotor copper losses are high and hence less efficiency Less rotor copper losses and hence high efficiency

Speed control by rotor resistance method is not

Speed control by rotor resistance method is possible
possible