CHAPTER 2

BASIC ELEMENTS OF
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

Source of Notes: Mr Jamal Othman

Chapter’s Outcome
At the end of this chapter, student should be able to:
a) Identify the basic elements needed in writing a program

b) Understand and apply the input/output statement

c) Justify the process of error handling

d) Write a simple program

Chapter’s Outline
1) Identifier, variable, constants and reserved words

2) Rules for naming identifiers

3) Declaring data variables and constants

4) Basic data types –integer, float, double, bool, char , string

5) Arithmetic operators – addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, modulus

6) Assignment expression

7) Precedence & associatively

8) Assignment statement

9) Introduce some mathematical library functions

10) Input/output statement

11) Formatting output

12) Programming process, debugging and error handling

13) Three types of control structure – sequential, selection, repetition/looping

What is Identifiers?
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
cout << “Hello world”;
return 0;
}

a) By referring the above simple program, there are several identifiers are detected. The words
include, iostream, int, main, cout, {, } are considered as identifiers.

b) So another word is there are many identifiers will be used when you write programs. Identifier
is also related with variable and constant. An identifier in C++ is case sensitive. For example,
the identifier Sum is not the same identifier as sum or SUM.

c) For more information about identifiers please refer :

http://oakroadsystems.com/tech/c-predef.htm#Table

http://www.acm.uiuc.edu/webmonkeys/book/c_guide/index.html
What is Header File?
Each program must contain the header file or library. Eg : iostream.h, iomanip.h, math.h,
conio.h, string.h. If the header file is not included, the program will contain many errors.
What are Variables?
a) Variables also referred to as "identifiers" are named memory locations that have a
type, such as an integer or character, and consequently, a size, which is inherited
from their type.

b) Since variables are types, they have a set of operations that can be used to change
or manipulate them.

c) Variable is a location in memory that holds changeable data.

d) An identifier name can be made up of only the following:

 Letters - "a" through "z", and "A" through "Z".

 Numbers - 0 through 9.

 The underscore character "_".

What are Variables? (cont…)
e) Identifiers must begin with a letter or an underscore. However, some identifiers
beginning with an underscore have special meanings, so generally user-defined
identifiers begin with a letter.

f) There are some reserved words in C++, so the programmer should be cautious
in his choice of identifier names. For example, "int" is a poor choice, since that
is a reserved word indicating the type of the variable.

g) Program won’t be interesting, if never involve declaration of variables. There are

four types of data types int, char and float and double.

h) Samples of variable:

Student, employee_number, AGE, _marks1, mARK2

Rules of naming/declaring variable

1) Start with alphabetic or underscore

2) Don’t declare the same variable more than once.
3) Variable cannot start with number. Eg: 1marks, 4_age.
4) A variable may NOT contain blanks (no space between variable’s name)
5) Cannot use the reserved word to declare variable. Eg : asm, auto, break,
case, catch, char, class, const, continue, default,
delete, do, double, else, enum, extern, float, for,
friend, goto, if, inlineint, long, new, operator, private,
protected, public, register, return, short, signed,
sizeof, static, struct, switch, template, this, throw,
try, typedef, union, unsigned, virtual, void, volatile,
wchar_t, while,
Rules of naming/declaring variable (cont…)

6) Suggestion when you declare variables.

 Meaningful

 Understandable

 Avoid ambiguity

 Not too long but looks simple

Exercise on naming variables:
Identify either the variable’s name is Valid or Invalid:

Variable Valid/Invalid
TotalNum
int
VOID
sum Num
aVeraGe32
#area
Discount*price
plus987abc
Exercise on naming variables:
Answers:
Variable Valid/Invalid
TotalNum Valid
int Invalid
VOID Valid
sum Num Invalid
aVeraGe32 Valid
#area Invalid
Discount*price Invalid
plus987abc Valid
Variable Types
Refer to any text for a complete set of variable types. Here is a short list of commonly
used types.
char A 1 byte integer usually used to store a character.
short A 2 byte integer.
int A 4 byte integer.
long 4 or 8 byte integer (compiler dependent).
Single precision floating point number.
float
(7 digits or more - compiler dependent)

Double precision floating point number.

double
(15 digits or more - compiler dependent)
bool Boolean literal. Values are true (numerically=1) or false (numerically=0).

A variable number of characters.

Note: string is actually a C++ class. In order to use this data type, you
string need to add the statement:
#include <string>
to the start of your program.
Declaring a variable
Declaring a variable starts with data type followed by the name of
variable and a semicolon.
Syntax:
type variable_name;

Example:
int age; //Declare age as integer.
float sum; //Declare sum as float.
double area; //Declare area as double
char name[25]; //Declare name as character.
string address=""; //Declare address as string.
char gender; //Declare gender as character.
Sample program using integer data type:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int value1, value2;
value1 = 4;
value2 = 5;
cout << value1 << value2;
return 0;
}

 This program shows the usage of integer data type. Two variables have been declared value1 and

value2. Both data type is integer. Means both variables accept numbers only.

 If we relates to the concepts of memory management, there are two addresses have been used to

store the number 4 and 5 at value1 and value2 respectively.

Eg:
4 5
value1 value2
Sample program using float data type:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
float pai;
pai = 3.14;
cout << pai;
return 0;
}

 pai is a variable which the data type is float.

 Float accepts until 7 decimal points.

 Others examples of variable using float are currency, GPA, CGPA and etc.
Sample program using double data type:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
double result;
result = 3.263772838;
cout << result;
return 0;
}

 This program shows that the variable use double data type.

 Double supports more than 7 decimal points up to 14.

Sample program using char data type:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char code;
char symbol;
char name[30];
code = ‘b’;
symbol = ‘+’;
cout << code;
cout << symbol;
cout << strcpy(name, “Don’t Panic”);
return 0;
}

 They are two types of char, either you enter an alphabet/symbol or string.

 If it is a string then the function strcpy() should be used.

 Don’t forget to declare the header file string.h.

Sample program using string data type:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
string courseCode;
cout << "Please enter your course code: ";
cin >> ws;
getline (cin, courseCode);
cout << "Course code registered is " <<courseCode<<endl;
return 0;
}
 A string is a collection of characters, for example name, address, matrix number or phone number.

 String in C++ always enclosed in double quotes (“ ”).

 Don’t forget to declare the header file string.h.

What is Constant?
1) Constants provide a way to define a variable which cannot be modified by
any other part in the code.
2) Constants can be defined by placing the keyword const in front of any
variable declaration.
3) May not have its value changed while the programming is running.
4) Constant are usually define in capital letter.

Example:
const double PAI = 3.142;
Basic Arithmetic Operators
Basic arithmetic's operators are:

Arithmetic
Operators Arithmetic Operation Example
in C++

+ Addition 57.5 + 6 = 73.5, or 10 + 8 =18

- Subtraction 100 – 19 = 81, or 66.4 – 15.5 = 50.9

* Multiplication 7*15 = 105, or 30.2*7= 211.4

/ Division 19/2 = 9 , or 19.0/2 = 9.5

Modulus (remainder) 15%3=0 or 17%3=2

%
Never use the modulus with floating-point (decimal)
values.
Arithmetic Expression
For example if you are given the following variables.
Value1 = 5
Value2 = 10
Value3 = 7

a) Operator ‘+’ is used to get the addition value of variables.

Value1+Value2 = 15
b) Operator ‘-‘ is used for subtraction of variables.
Value3-Value1 = 2
c) Operator ‘*’ is used to multiply variables.
Value1*Value2*Value3 = 350
d) Operator ‘/’ is used to get the division value of variables.
Value2/Value1 = 2
e) Operator ‘%’ is used to get the balance of division result.
Value2%Value3 = 3
Exercise on Arithmetic Expression
Convert the following mathematics expression into arithmetic expression (in C++).
Exercise on Arithmetic Expression
Precedence & Associativity
Parenthesis is used in C++ expressions in much the same manner as in algebraic
expressions.

Example:
a * (b+c)

There are several rules that you need to know:

a) Operators in expressions contained within pairs of parenthesis are evaluated first.
b) *, / and % are applied next.
c) + and – operations are applied last.
Precedence & Associativity (cont…)
Example:
Evaluate the following statements. Assume that all variables are integer.
n = 9, m = 16, a = 2, c = 7

a) 1-(1-(1-(1-n))) = 9
you must solved in the bracket first then go to outer bracket.

b) m / n + n % m
m / n = 1 then n % m = 9 , the final answer is 10

c) - m + sqrt (n * n – a * m ) / 2 * a
sqrt (n * n – a * m ) = 7
then divide by 2 = 3
then * a = 6
- m + 6 = -10
Exercise on Precedence & Associativity
Exercise on Precedence & Associativity
Writing Program (Exercise)
Write a program that ask the user to enter two integers.
Then, compute the addition, substraction, multiplication and
division of the two integers. The program will display the
output of all the mathematical operations above.
Commenting the Program
1) Comment is very important in any program.
2) The purpose of commenting the program is to:
 make us easier to refer and
 understand the function of the program.
3) Normally the program will consists like author’s name, date program created,
purpose, etc.
Example:
//Author : Aminah Bt Abu Bakar
//Date : 7 May 2002
//Purpose : to calculate the total of two numbers

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int a, b;
a=5;
b=6;
cout << a+b;
return 0;
}
Input and Output Statements
Among the statements in sequential structure in C++:

Output statement : cout <<

Input statement : cin >>
Assignment statement : =
Assignment Statement
1) To assign a value to variable without keying in the data.
2) The value has been assigned in the program.

Example:
mark = 3; //assigning an integer value
grade = ‘A’; //assigning a character value
strcpy(name, “Aziz”); //assigning a string value
total = 33.5; //assigning a double value
courseCode = “CSC128”; //assigning a string value
Assignment Statement (cont…)
1) A variable can store only one value at a time.

Example:
number = 12.7;
number = 35.2;

• The value 12.7 will be assigned to variable number and then the value
35.2 will be assigned to variable number. The value 12.7 will be
overwrite and number would retain the latest value 35.2.
Assignment Statement (cont…)
2) Two variables can also store the same value.
Example:
int number1, number2;

number1 = 12.7;
number2 = number1;

• The value 12.7 will be assigned to variable number1.

• Next, the variable number2 takes the value of variable number1 =
12.7.
• Now, both variable number1 and number2 store the same value
which is 12.7
Assignment Statement (cont…)
3) A modified variable can also store the final result into the origin variable.

Example:
int count;

count = count + 10;

 Retrieve from memory the contents of memory cell count.

 Next, add ten to the value of variable count.
 Finally, store the result in the memory cell named count.
Increment and Decrement Operator
(Postfix & Prefix)

Operator Name Operator Description

Increment postfix a++ a = a + 1
Increment prefix ++a a = a + 1
Decrement postfix a-- a = a - 1
Decrement prefix --a a = a - 1
Sample program using Postfix and Prefix
operator:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int x = 10, y = 5;
cout << x << " " << y << endl;
cout << ++x << " " << ++y << endl; // prefix
cout << x << " " << y << endl;
cout << x++ << " " << y++ << endl; // postfix
cout << x << " " << y << endl;
cout << x-- << " " << --y << endl; // postfix & prefix
cout << x << " " << y << endl;

return 0;
}
Mathematical Library Functions
All the arithmetical function from #include<math.h> header file are listed in the
following table:
Function name Operation
sqrt() Return the square root of the argument
pow(x,y) Return x raised to the power of y
pow10(y) Return 10 raised to the power of y
sin() Return the sine of argument (radiant)
hypot(a,b) Return the hypotenuse of a right triangle whose sides are a and b
tan() Return the tangent of the argument (radians)
log() Return the natural log of the argument
Log10() Return the base 10 log of the argument
abs() Return the absolute value of argument
Sample program using sqrt and pow function:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
#include <math.h>

int main()
{
int number, power;
double squareroot;

cout<<"Enter an integer: ";

cin>>number;

squareroot = sqrt(number);
power = pow(number,2);

cout<<"Squareroot of the number = "<<squareroot<<endl;

cout<<"Power of two of the number = "<<power;

return 0;
}
Input Statement
Data to be keyed-in through keyboard

Example:
a) Used for numbers (int, long, float, double) or a single character (single-char)
cin >> variable_name;
cin >> value1;

b) Used for strings of character (char)

cin.getline(variable_name, size);
cin.getline(myAddress, 50);

c) Used for string

getline(cin, variable_name);
getline(cin, myAddress);
Input Statement (cont…)
 cin statement for two variables are as follows :

cin >> firstNumber;

cin >> secondNumber;

 Or the two inputs (variables) can be combined as follows:

cin >> firstNumber >> secondNumber;

Output Statement
 cout statement for two variables are as follows :

cout << total;

cout << finalAnswer;

 Or the two outputs (variables) can be combined as follows:

cout << total << finalAnswer;

Examples of Output Statement
//output a message (string)
cout << “Hello world”;

//output a character
cout << ‘A’;

//output the value of a variable named average

cout << average;

//output a number with the value 10

cout << 10;

//output the result of addition of two integers

cout << 2 + 5;
or
cout << 5 << “+” << 6 << “=”<<5+6;
Formatting Output
 C++ allow output formatting using special commands called escape sequences
within the cout statement ONLY.
Escape Sequences Character:
 Predefined symbols can be used to display better output.

Example:
\n Newline.
\t Horizontal tab.
\r Carriage return.
\a Alert sound (bell).
\\ Outputs a backslash character.
\" Outputs a double quote character.

 endl means “end-of-line” is used to move the cursor to the next line right after
that word.
Formatting Output (cont…)

I/O Manipulator

 Don’t forget to declare the header file #include<iomanip>

 This header file allows you to manipulate the output stream to obtain desired effect.
 Most system divides a page of text output into twenty five rows and eighty columns.

A few common list of I/O Manipulator:

Manipulator Action
setw(n) Set field width to n
setprecision(n) Sets floating-point precision to n
setfill(n) Sets fill character to n
Formatting Output (cont…)
Example of using setw (n):
Create three column of output: student’s name, matric number and programme.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
#include <iomanip>
#include <string.h>

int main()
{
cout<<“\n” // skip a line
<<setw(30)<<“STUDENTNAME” // display heading
<<setw(15)<<“MATRICNO”
<<setw(10)<<“PROGRAMME”<<endl;

cout<<setw(30)<<“-----------” // display underline

<<setw(15)<<“--------”
<<setw(10)<<“---------”<<endl;

return 0;
}
Formatting Output (cont…)
Example of using setw (n):

cout<<“\n” // skip a line

<<setw(30)<<“STUDENTNAME” // display heading
<<setw(15)<<“MATRICNO”
<<setw(10)<<“PROGRAMME”<<endl;

cout<<setw(30)<<“-----------” // display underline

<<setw(15)<<“--------”
<<setw(10)<<“---------”<<endl;

The Output Screen:

30 columns 15 columns 10 columns

STUDENTNAME MATRICNO PROGRAMME

----------- -------- ---------
Formatting Output (cont…)
Example of using setfill (n):

number = 101.75;
cout << setw(10) << setfill(‘*’) << number;

The Output Screen:

****101.75

 Specifies character for blank space in field.

 Single quotes (‘ ’) required around character enclosed in parentheses.
Formatting Output (cont…)
Generating Decimal Point Value using setprecision (n):

cout.setf(ios::fixed);
cout.precision(n);

 cout.setf(ios::fixed) instruct the compiler to generate a fixed decimal output

without exponential, or e, notation.
 cout.precision(n) commands the number of decimal places to the right of
decimal point to be generated.

Example:
int number = 101.75123;
cout.setf(ios::fixed);
cout.precision(2);
cout<<number;

The Output Screen:

101.75
Formatting Output (cont…)
Generating Left-Justified Value

 By default, when we use setw(n) to print values or information, the values are
right justified.

 In order to change the default, to put the outputs as left justify, we must write
this statement:

cout.setf(ios::left);
Formatting Output (cont…)
Generating Left-Justified Value
Example Program:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
#include<iomanip>
#include<string.h>

int main()
{
string name1="";
string name2="";
string prog1;
string prog2;

cout.setf(ios::left);

cout<<"Enter first student name:";

cin>>ws;
getline(cin,name1);
cout<<"Enter first student programme:";
cin>>prog1;
Formatting Output (cont…)
Example Program (cont…):

cout<<"Enter second student name:";

cin>>ws;
getline(cin,name2);
cout<<"Enter second student programme:";
cin>>prog2;

cout<<"\n\n";
cout<<setw(50)<<"NAME"<<setw(10)<<"PROGRAMME"<<endl;
cout<<setw(50)<<"----"<<setw(10)<<"---------"<<endl;

//display values
cout<<setw(50)<<name1<<setw(10)<<prog1<<endl;
cout<<setw(50)<<name2<<setw(10)<<prog2<<endl<<endl;

return 0;
}
Formatting Output (cont…)
Generating Left-Justified Value

Output for the sample program:

Programming Process, Debugging and
Error Handling
 Debugging is the process of identifying and correcting errors in the programs.

Compile
button
Programming Process, Debugging and
Error Handling (cont…)
 Once compiled, any error (s) in the program will be displayed at the bottom of the
application as below.
 The program statement which contains error will be automatically highlighted.

Error(s)
Programming Process, Debugging and
Error Handling (cont…)
 After corrections are done to the program (with errors), press compile button again
and your program is ready to be run if there are free from any errors (refer the
sample below).

No more
errors
Programming Process, Debugging and
Error Handling (cont…)
 Click run button to display your output screen.
Run
button
Programming Process, Debugging and
Error Handling (cont…)
 Types of Error

Types of Error Description Example

Syntax error due to violation of int my age;

programming languages. cout>>answer;
cin>>num

Logic the real result is not the same as

with the expected result or
wrong output in a syntactically
correct program.

Run-time caused program instructions x=1;

that require the computer to do y=0;
something illegal such as an divide = x/y;
attempt to divide a number by 0. cout<<“Division=”<<divide;
Three Types Of Control Structure

 Types of Control Structures

Types of Control Structure Description C++ Implementation

Sequential Statements are executed step- none

by-step in a linear sequence of
instructions.

Selection / Conditional Statements are executed If

based on certain condition or If and else
Switch statements
decision.

Iteration / Looping The repetition of a statement or While loop

a group of a statements for a Do…while loop
For loop
certain number of times or
while a condition is fulfilled.
Example of Sequential Control Structure

Question:
Calculate the subtraction and multiplication of two numbers.
Steps in problem solving:
1) To understand the following question, the first step, this question means that you
have to enter any two numbers and get the subtraction and multiplication of two
numbers.
2) The second step identifying the input, process and output.
Input : a, b
Process : subtract = a – b, assuming a always bigger than b
multiply = a * b
Output : subtract and multiply
Example of Sequential Control Structure (cont...)

3) The third step is drawing the flowchart or pseudo-code.

4) The pseudo-code is as follows :-

BEGIN
ENTER first number(a) and second number(b)
CALCULATE subtract = a – b
CALCULATE multiply = a * b
DISPLAY subtract, multiply
END
Example of Sequential Control Structure (cont...)

5) The flowchart is as follows :-

Example of Selection Control Structure
Question:
Enter the first number (a) and the second number (b). Identify which number is bigger,
smaller or equal number.
Steps in problem solving:
1) To understand the following question, the first step is to understands the situation.
The situation is to compare the two numbers either the number is bigger or
smaller or both numbers are of equal value.
2) The second step identifying the input, process and output.
Input : a, b
Process and output : if a > b
Then display a bigger than b
if b > a
Then display b bigger than a
if b == a
Then display both are the same numbers.
Example of Selection Control Structure (cont...)

3) The third step is drawing the flowchart or pseudo-code.

4) The pseudo-code is as follows :-

BEGIN
ENTER a and b
if a > b
DISPLAY a is greater than b
if b > a
DISPLAY b is greater than a
if a==b
DISPLAY a equal to b
END
Example of Selection Control Structure (cont...)

5) The flowchart is as follows :-

Example of Iteration/Loop Control Structure
Question:
Let the user key-in any numbers. User will be given a choice either to stop the program
or continue key-in the next number. User must key-in 99, to stop the program. Display
the number that you have enter before.
Steps in problem solving:
1) To understand the following question, the first step is to understands the situation.
User will be given an opportunity to enter any numbers and total numbers are not
determined. To stop the program, user must key-in the number 99.
2) The second step identifying the input, process and output.
Input : any number (a)
Process and output : while a not equal to 99
Display a
Otherwise if a == 99
Then program will stop
Example of Iteration/Loop Control Structure (cont...)

3) The third step is drawing the flowchart or pseudo-code.

4) The pseudo-code is as follows :-

BEGIN
ENTER any number (a)
while a not equal to 99
DISPLAY a
otherwise program will stop
END
Example of Iteration/Loop Control Structure (cont...)

5) The flowchart is as follows :-