Scribd
Upload
70 views

The Structure and Function of Macromolecules: AP Biology Chapter 5

Macromolecules are giant molecules that include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates function in energy storage and as structural components. Lipids are involved in long-term energy storage and structural roles. Proteins have important control and structural functions as enzymes, hormones, and structural elements. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA are involved in information storage, protein synthesis, and energy transfers.

Uploaded by

iksingh78
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
70 views

The Structure and Function of Macromolecules: AP Biology Chapter 5

Macromolecules are giant molecules that include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates function in energy storage and as structural components. Lipids are involved in long-term energy storage and structural roles. Proteins have important control and structural functions as enzymes, hormones, and structural elements. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA are involved in information storage, protein synthesis, and energy transfers.

Uploaded by

iksingh78
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 48

The Structure and

Function of
Macromolecules

AP Biology Chapter 5
Macromolecules

Macromolecules are giant molecules .


Four main classes of macromolecules are:
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic Acids
Polymers

A polymer is a long molecule made of many similar or


identical monomers (small molecules).
Polymers are linked by covalent bonds.
The covalent bonds occur through condensation
reactions called dehydration.
The polymers are disassembled by a hydrolysis
reaction.
Dehydration Reactions

Condensation involves a dehydration synthesis


because a water is removed (dehydration) and a bond is
made (synthesis).
When two monomers join, a hydroxyl (OH) group is
removed from one monomer and a hydrogen (H) is
removed from the other.
This produces the water given off during a
condensation reaction.
Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates
function:
in short-term energy storage
as intermediate-term energy storage (starch for
plants and glycogen for animals);
as structural components in cells (cellulose in the
cell walls of plants and many protists), and chitin in
the exoskeleton of insects and other arthropods.
Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides are single (mono=one) sugars.


Sugars are structurally the simplest carbohydrates.
They are the structural unit which makes up the
other types of carbohydrates.
Important monosaccharides include ribose, glucose,
and fructose.
Disaccharides

Disaccharides are formed when two


monosaccharides are chemically bonded together.
Sucrose, a common plant disaccharide is composed
of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose.
Lactose, milk sugar, is a disaccharide composed of
glucose and the monosaccharide galactose.
Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are large molecules composed of


individual monosaccharide units.
A common plant polysaccharide is starch, which is
made up of many glucoses.
Glycogen is an animal storage product that
accumulates in the vertebrate liver.
Cellulose is a polysaccharide found in plant cell
walls. Cellulose forms the fibrous part of the plant
cell wall.
Amylopectin
Lipids

Lipids are involved mainly with long-term energy


storage.
They are generally insoluble in polar substances such as
water.
Secondary functions of lipids are as structural
components and as hormones that play roles in
communications within and between cells.
Lipids are composed of three fatty acids (usually)
covalently bonded to a 3-carbon glycerol.
Fatty Acids

Fatty acids can be


1. saturated (meaning they have as many
hydrogens bonded to their carbons as
possible) or
2. unsaturated (with one or more double bonds
connecting their carbons, hence fewer
hydrogens).
Fats

A fat is solid at room temperature, while an


oil is a liquid under the same conditions.
The fatty acids in oils are mostly unsaturated,
while those in fats are mostly saturated.
Fats and Oils

Fats and oils function in energy storage.


Animals convert excess sugars into fats.
Most plants store excess sugars as starch,
although some seeds and fruits have energy
stored as oils
Fats

Another use of fats is as insulators and


cushions.
The human body naturally accumulates some
fats in the "posterior" area.
Subdermal ("under the skin") fat plays a role
in insulation.
Phospholipids

Phospholipids and glycolipids are important


structural components of cell membranes.
Waxes

Waxes are an important structural component


for many organisms, such as the cuticle, a
waxy layer covering the leaves and stems of
many land plants; and protective coverings on
skin and fur of animals.
Cholesterol and Steroids

Cholesterol and steroids: Most mention of


these two in the news is usually negative.
Cholesterol has many biological uses, such as
its occurrence in the cell membranes, and its
role in forming the sheath of some neurons.
Proteins

Proteins are very important as control and


structural elements.
Control functions of proteins are carried out
by enzymes and proteinaceous hormones.
Enzymes

Enzymes are chemicals that act as organic


catalysts (a catalyst is a chemical that
promotes but is not changed by a chemical
reaction).
Structural Proteins
Structural proteins
function in the cell
membrane, muscle tissue,
etc.
Proteins

The building block of any protein is the


amino acid, which has an amino end (NH2)
and a carboxyl end (COOH).
The R indicates the variable component of
each amino acid.
Basic Amino Acid
Amino Acids
Evolutionary Significance

All living things use various combinations of


the same twenty amino acids. A very powerful
bit of evidence for the phylogenetic
connection of all living things.
Peptide Bond

Amino acids are linked together by joining


the amino end of one molecule to the carboxyl
end of another. Removal of water allows
formation of a type of covalent bond known as
a peptide bond.
Primary Structure

Amino acids are linked together into a


polypeptide, the primary structure is the
sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide.
Secondary Structure

The secondary structure is the tendency of the


polypeptide to coil or pleat due to H-bonding
between R-groups.
Tertiary Structure

The tertiary structure is controlled by bonding


(or in some cases repulsion) between R-
groups.
The protein tends to fold upon itself.
Quaternary Structure

Many proteins, such as hemoglobin, are


formed from one or more polypeptides. Such
structure is termed quaternary structure.
Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are polymers composed of


units known as nucleotides.
The main functions of nucleotides are
information storage (DNA), protein synthesis
(RNA), and energy transfers (ATP and NAD).
Nucleic Acids Cont’d

Nucleotides consist of a sugar, a nitrogenous base,


and a phosphate. The sugars are either ribose or
deoxyribose.
There are five nitrogenous bases. Purines (Adenine
and Guanine) are double-ring structures, while
pyrimidines (Cytosine, Thymine and Uracil) are
single-ringed.
DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (better known as


DNA) is the physical carrier of inheritance for
99% of living organisms. The bases in DNA
are C, G, A and T.
RNA

RNA functions in protein synthesis.


There are three types of RNA, each is involved in protein
synthesis.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the blueprint for construction of
a protein.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the construction site where the
protein is made.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) is the truck delivering the proper
amino acid to the site at the right time.

You might also like