UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this unit, you are
expected to:

1. define electricity.
2. name some scientists who contributed to the
development of electricity and electronics.
3. discuss the scientist’s contributions to electricity
and electronics.
4. quote some applications of electricity and
electronics.
5. identify various electrical components.
6. use metric prefixes in simplifying large and small
numbers.
7. perform mathematical operations involving powers
of ten and metric prefixes.
8. identify the SI units of mass, force, weight, work,
power and energy.
9. discuss the difference between direct current and
alternating current.
 ILOs TLAs A
1. define electricity.
2. name some scientists
who contributed to
1. Lecture
the development of
electricity and 2. Discussion 1. Recitation
3.
electronics.
discuss the scientist’s 3. PowerPoin 2. Seatwork
3.
contributions to
electricity and
electronics.
t
4. quote some
applications of
Presentation Assignment
electricity and
electronics. 4. Problem
5. identify various
electrical
components.
Set
6. use metric prefixes in
simplifying large and 5. Objective
Test
small numbers.
7. perform
mathematical
operations involving
powers of ten and
metric prefixes.
8. identify the SI units of
mass, force, weight,
work, power and
energy.
9. discuss the difference
between direct
current and
alternating current.
 Important
Important Terms
Terms

electricity semiconductor
static electricity active element
dynamic electricity passive element
resistor electrical quantities
resistance metric prefixes
inductor direct current
inductance alternating current
transformer  
Definition of Electricity

Electricity is a physical
phenomenon arising from
the existence and interaction
of electric charge. It is a
form of energy generated by
friction, heat, light,
magnetism, chemical
reaction, etc.
 Two Types of Electricity:

• Static electricity – electricity at rest. It

cannot flow from one place to another.

•Dynamic electricity – also known as

current electricity. Electricity in motion. It
can be transmitted from one place to the
other.
 Methods of Producing Electricity

There are six methods for producing

electricity:
1.Magnetism
2.Chemical reaction
3.Pressure
4.Heat
5.Friction
6.Light
A piezoelectric disk generates a voltage 
when deformed (change in shape is 
greatly exaggerated)
A thermoelectric generator (TEG), also called a Seebeck generator, is a solid state 
device that converts heat flux (temperature differences) directly into electrical energy 
through a phenomenon called the Seebeck effect (a form of thermoelectric effect).
Electrical Effects

With the exception of friction, electricity can

be used to cause the same effects that cause
it.
1.Magnetism
2.Chemical action
3.Pressure
4.Heat
5.Light
History of Electricity and Electronics

Picture Contributions to
Use short bond the development
paper of electricity and
electronics/inventi
See edmodo for ons/discoveries
the front page

Title: Scientists
and their
Contributions to Name
the Development (Year born-died)
of Electricity and
Electronics
For example:

He used the Latin

Use short bond paper word elektron for
amber and
See edmodo for the originated the
front page
word electrica for
Title: Scientists and the other
their contributions to substances that
the development of acted similar to
electricity amber.
William Gilbert
(1540-1603).
MORAL LESSON
plications of Electricity and Electron

Computers

Communications
Automation Medicine
Consumer Products
Circuit Components

Resistors

These can be the carbon-composition type or

wound with special resistance wire. Their
function is to limit the amount of current or
divide the voltage in a circuit.
Capacitors
A capacitor is constructed of two conductor plates
separated by an insulator (called a dielectric). Its
basic function is to concentrate the electric field of
voltage across the dielectric. As a result, the capacitor
can accumulate and store electric charge from the
voltage source. Furthermore, the dielectric can
discharge the stored energy when the charging source
is replaced by a conducting path.
When ac voltage is applied, the capacitor charges and
discharges as the voltage varies. The practical
application of this effect is the use of capacitors to pass
an ac signal but to block a steady dc voltage.
Inductors
An inductor is just a coil of wire. Its basic function is to
concentrate the magnetic field of electric current in the
coil. Most important, an induced voltage is generated
when the current with its associated magnetic field
changes in value or direction. Inductors are often called
chokes.

In the practical application of a choke, the inductor can

pass a steady current better than alternating current. The
reason is that a steady current cannot produce induced
voltage. Note that the effect of a choke, passing a steady
current, is the opposite of that of a coupling capacitor,
which blocks dc voltage.
Transformers

Semiconductor Devices
 Active and Passive Elements

Active elements - are capable of delivering

power to some external device.
Examples: dependent and independent voltage
and current sources

Passive elements – are capable of receiving

power. They are able to store to store finite
amounts of energy and then return that energy
later to various external devices. Examples are
resistors, inductors, and capacitors.
Measuring Instruments
Electrical Quantities and Units with SI Symbols
Quantity Symbol Unit Symbol
Capacitance
C
Conductance
Current
joule
Frequency
henry
watt
ohm
volt
Commonly Used Metric Prefixes in Electricity
Power of Value Metric Prefix Metric
Ten Symbol
109 one billion giga G
106 one million mega M
103 one thousand kilo k
10-3 one-thousandth milli m
10-6 one-millionth micro 
10-9 one-billionth nano n
10-12 one-trillionth pico p
EXAMPLE: Express the following as a quantity
having a metric prefix

1) 89 x 10-9 F
2) 270 x 10-6 A
3) 385 x 103 V
4) 375 x 103 x 103 V
5) 62000000000 Ω
6) 0.00000000543 F
EXAMPLE: Add the following. Show your solution.

1) 2350000 V + 450 kV = _______ kV

2) 440 mA + 640000 µA = ________ mA
3) 5.7 MW + 498200 kW = ________ MW
4) 8923 V + 99 kA = __________ kW
MORAL LESSON
 Comparison of AC and DC

Direct Current

The DC electricity, flows in one direction. The

flow is said to be from negative to positive. The
normal source of a DC electricity, is the dry cell
or storage battery.
Alternating Current.

The AC electricity constantly reverses its direction of

flow. It is generated by machine called generator. This
type of current is universally accepted because of its
limited number of applications with the following
advantages.
•It is easily produced.
•It is cheaper to maintain.
•It could be transformed into higher voltage.
•It could be distributed to far distance with low
voltage drop.
•It is more efficient compared with the direct current.

See multisim DC and AC in oscilloscope

 Comparison of DC Voltage and AC
Voltage
DC Voltage AC Voltage
Fixed Polarity Reverses polarity
Can be steady or vary in Varies between reversals in
magnitude polarity
Steady value cannot be stepped Can be stepped up or down
up or down by a transformer for electric power
distribution
Easier to measure Easier to amplify

Heating effect is the same in AC and DC

See multisim lamp in AC and DC

circuit
MORAL LESSON
The War of Currents
Thomas Edison, a prolific inventor in the 19th and
20th centuries, holds the record for the most U.S.
patents by one person. When it came to
technology, he was usually a winner. But there was
one important area where Edison lost - and lost
badly. It was called the 'War of Currents,' and it
pitted Edison and his support for direct current
(DC) electricity against engineers like George
Westinghouse and Nikola Tesla, who supported
alternating current (AC).
In the 1880s, incandescent lighting was
the main goal, and DC was just as good as
AC. But a storm was brewing, and it
centered on which type of power, AC or
DC, would be best for power generation,
electric motors, and power transmission.
The war came to a head in 1893, when the
contract to provide electricity to the Chicago
World's Fair was awarded to Westinghouse,
whose proposal, using AC, came in over 30%
cheaper than Edison's. In that same year, the
Niagara Falls Power Company decided to go with
AC power generation for the city of Buffalo and
signed with Westinghouse and Tesla as well.
These two major victories were part of the
changes taking place rapidly in the 1890s that set
our country on a path toward AC power.
1. RECITATION
*QUESTIONS:
1. What is electricity?
2. Discuss the probable changes in your lifestyle
if the electric service in your home were
disconnected for one week.
3. Name some scientists who contributed to the
development of electricity and electronic and
their contributions to the development of
electricity.
4. Discuss the scientist’s contributions to
electricity and electronics.
5. What are some applications of electricity
and electronics?
6. Identify various electrical components .
7. What is the difference between direct
current and alternating current?
2. Assessment Nos. 1 and 2
3. “Edmodo” Quiz
 Assessment No. 1
SCIENTISTS AND ELECTRICAL
TERMINOLOGIES

• static electricity
• dynamic electricity
• William Gilbert
• Sir Thomas Browne
• Robert Boyle
• Otto Von Guiricke
• Stephen Gray
• Charles du Fay
• Benjamin Franklin
• Luigi Galvani
• Alessandro Volta
• Hans Christian Oersted
• Andre Ampere
• Georg Simon Ohm
• Michael Faraday
• Joseph Henry
• Heinrich Rudolph Hertz
• Heinrich Geissler
• Thomas Edison
• Resistor
• Capacitor
• inductor
• Transformer
• Semiconductor
• Active element
• Passive
element
• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• Ohmmeter
• Wattmeter
• Kilowatthourm
eter
• Capacitance
• Charge
• Conductance
• Current
•
• Frequency
• Inductance
• Power
• Resistance
• Voltage
• Alternating
current
• Direct current
 Assessment No. 2
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY
1.What is electricity?

2. Write at least five scientists who contributed to

the development of electricity? Include their
contributions to electricity.

3. What are the applications of electricity and

electronics?
4. Express the following using metric prefixes:
a.0.00000625 F
b.23000000000 Ω
c.0.0000000000234 A
d.126000 V
5. Add the following without using a calculator.
Use metric prefixes to simplify.
a.0.00000625 F + 0.0000835 F
b.23000000000 Ω + 45 GΩ
c.0.0000000000234 A + 0.000000002446 A
d.126000 V + 923800 V
6. Write the SI units of mass, force, weight, work,
power and energy.

7. What is the difference between AC and DC?

REVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS
TOPIC
 Unit 2

ATOMS, ELECTRICAL CHARGE,

VOLTAGE, AND CURRENT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this unit, you are
expected to:

1. describe the structure of an atom.

2. discuss the behavior of free electrons.
3. calculate the number of free electrons in
a material.
4. define electric charges.
5. Calculate the amount of charge in a given
number of electrons.
6. define voltage and current.
7. discuss how voltage produces current.
8. solve the current for a given charge and
time.
.
9. solve the voltage for a given energy and
amount of charge.
10. identify various types of voltage sources.
11. classify the three basic types of materials.
12. explain the difference among conductors,
insulators, and semiconductors
13. explain the difference between
dependent and independent voltage and
current sources.
14. discuss electron flow and conventional
current direction.
15 draw symbols of voltage and current
sources.
16. discuss the sign conventions of
voltage and current.
 ILOs TLAs ATs
1. describe the structure of

2.
an atom.
discuss the behavior of 1. Lecture
1. Recitation
free electrons.
3. calculate the number of
free electrons in a 2. Discussion
2. Seatwork
material.
4.
5.
define electric charges.
Calculate the amount of 3. PowerPoint
3.
charge in a given

6.
number of electrons.
define voltage and Presentatio
Assignment
current.
7. discuss how voltage
produces current. n
4. Problem
8. solve the current for a
given charge and time.
9. and alternating curren

Set
t. . solve the voltage for a given
energy and amount of
charge.

5. Objective
10. identify various types of
voltage sources.
11. classify the three basic types

Test
of materials.
13. explain the difference among
conductors, insulators,
and semiconductors
14. explain the difference
between dependent and
independent voltage and
current sources.
15. discuss electron flow and
conventional current
direction.
16 draw symbols of voltage and
current sources.
17. discuss the sign
conventions of
voltage and
current.
 Important
Important Terms
Terms

Matter conductor battery

Element semiconductor primary cell
compound insulator secondary cell
Mixture ion wet cell
Molecule cation dry cell
Atom anion ampere-hour
Proton charge ideal current source
dependent current
electron coulomb source
 potential
valence electron difference electric current
conventional
atomic number voltage current flow
atomic mass volt electron flow
ideal voltage
saturated orbit source
dependent
unsaturated orbit voltage source
Copper cell
Structure of Matter
Matter – anything that occupies space and has
weight
Element – a substance that cannot be decomposed
any further by chemical action
Compound – a combination of two or more
elements in a fixed proportion,
e.g., H2O, SO2, NaCl, etc.
Mixture – is a collection of two or more elements
in any proportion.
Molecule – smallest particle that a compound can
be reduced to before it breaks down into its
elements.
Atom – smallest part of an element can be reduced
to and still keeping the properties of the element.
Parts of an atom:
Name Charge Mass (kg) Diameter (m)
Proton Positive charge: 1.672 x 10-27 1/3 of the
+1.602 x 10-19 diameter of
coulomb electron
Electron Negative charge: 9.107 x 10-31 10-15
- 1.602 x 10-19
coulomb
Neutron No charge 1.672 x 10-27 approximately
the same as
proton
The structure of an atom:

Nucleus of an atom –
center of the atom. It is
where the protons and
the neutrons are
located.

The electrons revolve

around the orbits or
shells around the
nucleus.
To determine the number of electrons in each shell this
formula applies:

where: N = total number of electrons on a given

shell
n = nth shell of the atom
Valence Electrons – electrons found in the outermost shell
or orbit of an atom.

Atomic Number – represents the number of electrons or

protons of an atom.

Atomic mass – represents the sum of protons and neutrons

of an atom.
Saturated orbit – the orbit which acquires
that much electrons as it should have.

Unsaturated orbit – the orbit which is not

satisfied or not having that much number of
electrons which it should possess.
The Copper Atom
 The following discusses why copper is
considered as a conductor.
The electron energy level:

Rule: Although all electrons have the same negative

charges, not all electrons share the same energy level.
The further an electron orbits from the nucleus, the
greater its energy. Energy Added
1. The energy added to a valence shell is distributed
among the valence electrons. Thus for a given
energy, the more valence electrons, the less
energy each will get.

2. If enough energy is added to an electron, the

electron will move out from its orbit and
move to the next higher orbit. That is, if enough
energy is added to a valence electron, the
electron will move out from its atom and
becomes a free electron since there is no more
higher orbit.
Positive and Negative Ions

When an electron is removed from a neutral

atom, this atom becomes positively charged
and is called positive ion or cation. However if
an electron is added to a neutral atom, it
becomes negatively charged and is called a
negative ion or anion. Thus an atom becomes
an ion by the gain or loss of an electron.
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS ACCORDING
TO CONDUCTIVITY

Conductors – are substances or materials used to

convey or allow the flow of electric current.
-has 3 or less valence electrons
Materials Considered as Good Electric
Conductors are:
1. Silver 7. Zinc
2. Copper 8. Platinum
3. Gold 9. Iron
4. Aluminum 10. Lead
5. Nickel 11. Tin
6. Brass
Semiconductors – are classed below the
conductors in their ability to carry
current.
- has exactly 4 valence electrons

Silicon and germanium are

semiconductor materials.
Insulators – are substances or materials that
resist the flow of electric current.

- has 5 or more valence electrons

Various Kinds of Insulators:
1. Rubber 7. Latex
2. Porcelain 8. Asbestos
3. Varnish 9. Paper
4. Slate 10. Oil
5. Glass 11. Wax
6. Mica 12. Thermoplastic
Conduct
or

energ
y

Vast amount of
free electrons
Insulator

energ
y

Very few free

electrons
Number of Free Electrons of Some
Common Materials

Silver – 1.68 x 1024 free electrons/cubic inch

Copper – 1.64 x 1024 free electrons/cubic
inch
Aluminum – 1024 free electrons/cubic
inch
Hard Rubber – 3 free electrons/cubic inch
 Electric Charge

Charge is an electrical property of the atomic

particles of which matter consists, measured in
coulombs (C).
A body is said to be charged, if it has either an
excess or deficit of electrons from its normal
values due to sharing.

Coulomb (C) – unit of electric charge which is

equivalent to 6.24 x 1018 electrons or protons.
- named after the French physicist, Charles A.
Coulomb (1736 – 1806).
 The following points should be noted about

charge:

1. The coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1 C of

charge, there are 1/(1.602 x 1018) = 6.24 x 1018
electrons. Thus realistic laboratory values of
charges are on the order of pC, nC, or µC.
2. According to experimental observation, the only
charges that occur in nature are integral multiples
of the electronic charge e = -1.602 x 10-19 C.
3. The law of conservation of charge states that
charge can neither be created nor destroyed, only
transferred. Thus the algebraic sum of the electric
charges in a system does not change.
Example 2.1 How many coulombs do 93.75
x 1016 electrons represent?

Solution:
Q =
Example How many electrons does
it take to make 40 C of charge?
MORAL LESSON
QUESTIONS???
Potential Difference (Voltage)
Potential – the capability of doing work
Any charge had the capability of doing work of
moving another charge either by attraction or
repulsion.
The net number of electrons moved in the
direction of the positive charge plate depends upon
the potential difference between the two charges.
Volt (V) – unit of potential difference which is
equal to one joule of work done per coulomb of
charge.
Potential difference in electrical terms is
more commonly called voltage (V) and is
expressed as energy (W) per unit charge (Q):

where: W is expressed in Joules (J) and Q is in

coulombs(C).

The unit of voltage is the volt, symbolized by V.

- named after the Italian physicist, Alessandro C.
Volta (1754 – 1827) who invented the first electric
battery.
One volt is the potential difference
(voltage) between two points when one
joule of energy is used to move one
coulomb of charge from one point to the
other.
We assume that we are dealing with a
differential amount of charge and energy, then
Example If 50 J of energy are available for
every 10 C of charge, what is the voltage?
Example An energy of 20 Joules is required in
moving a 2-coulomb charge from point A to B. What is
the potential difference between point A and B?
The Idea of Electric Potential

load

Direction of electron
flow

zinc
copper

H2SO4
Analogy of Electrical Potential Difference
Voltage Sources and Their Symbols

Ideal Voltage Source

A voltage source which has zero resistance.

The Ideal Independent Voltage Source

This is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed

voltage across its terminals regardless of the current
through it.
 E
   +    12V
V      -
          

                 

The Ideal Dependent Voltage Source

This is a voltage source in which a voltage or a
current at some other part of the circuit determines
the voltage across its terminals.

          +
  V      -
 
For a battery

+ For sources
_ other than
battery
Sources of Voltage
1. The Battery 

A voltage source is a source of potential energy that is

also called electromotive force (emf). The battery is
one type of voltage source that converts chemical
energy into electrical energy. A voltage exists between
the electrodes (terminals) of a battery, as shown by a
voltaic cell in the figure. One electrode is positive and
the other negative as result of the separation of
charges caused by the chemical action when two
different conducting materials are dissolved in the
electrolyte.
Difference Between Cell and a Battery

Cell – is composed of two dissimilar metals, which are

immersed in a conductive liquid or paste called an
electrolyte. (Electrolysis is the process of converting
chemical energy to electrical energy).

Battery – a combination of cells

 Classification of Chemical cells (or
battery)

a. Primary cells are ordinarily not usable after a

certain period of time. After this period of time its
chemicals can no longer produce
electrical energy.

b. Secondary cells can be renewed after they are

used, by reactivating the chemical process that is used to
produce electrical energy. This reactivation is known as
charging.
 Classification of Cells According to Type
of Chemicals Used:

a. Wet Cell – uses liquid chemicals

b. Dry Cell – contains a chemical paste
 Types of Primary and Secondary Cells
Cell Name Open Circuit Cell Type
Voltage
Carbon-zinc 1.5 V Primary
Alkaline   Primary
Zinc-chloride 1.5 V Primary
Zinc air cells    
Manganese-zinc 1.5 V Primary or Secondary
Mercury-oxide 1.35 V Primary
Silver-oxide 1.5 V Primary
Lithium 3.0 V Primary
Rechargeable alkaline   Secondary
Nickel metal hydride    
Lead-acid 2.1 V Secondary
Nickel-cadmium 1.25 V Secondary
Nickel-iron 1.2 V Secondary
Nickel ion   Secondary
Lead-acid   Secondary
Silver-zinc 1.5 V Secondary
Silver-cadmium 1.1 V Secondary
Sizes for Popular Types of Dry Cells
Size Height (inch) Diameter
(inch)
D 2¼ 1¼
C 1¾ 1
AA 1 7/8 9/16
AAA 1¾ 3/8
Ampere-Hour Rating of Secondary Cells

The capacity of a battery composed of lead-acid

cells is given by an ampere-hour rating. A 60-
ampere hour battery could theoretically deliver
60 amperes for 1 hour, 30 amperes for 2 hours,
or 15 amperes for 4 hours. However, this is an
approximate rating dependent upon the rate of
discharge and the operating temperature of the
battery. The normal operating temperature is
considered to be 80 F.
2. The Electronic Power Supply
3. The Solar Cell
4. The Generator
 Assignment No. 2
TYPES OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CELLS AND THEIR
USES
Cell Name Open Circuit Cell Type
Voltage
Carbon-zinc 1.5 V Primary
Alkaline   Primary
Zinc-chloride 1.5 V Primary
Zinc air cells    
Manganese-zinc 1.5 V Primary or Secondary
Mercury-oxide 1.35 V Primary
Silver-oxide 1.5 V Primary
Lithium 3.0 V Primary
Rechargeable alkaline   Secondary
Nickel metal hydride    
Lead-acid 2.1 V Secondary
Nickel-cadmium 1.25 V Secondary
Nickel-iron 1.2 V Secondary
Nickel ion   Secondary
Lead-acid   Secondary
Silver-zinc 1.5 V Secondary
Silver-cadmium 1.1 V Secondary
MORAL LESSON
ELECTRIC CURRENT: CHARGE
IN MOTION

Random motion of free electrons in a

material.
When a potential difference between two charges
forces a third charge to move, the charge in motion
is called an electric current.

_ +

Electrons flow from negative to positive

when a voltage is applied across a
conductive material.
The movement of free electrons from the negative
end of the material to the positive end is the
electrical current, symbolized by I.

Electrical current is defined as

the rate of flow of electrons in a
conductive material.
Current is measured by the number of
electrons (amount of charge, Q) that flows
past a point in a unit of time:
 

where: I is the current, Q is the charge of

the electrons, and t is the
time.
Ampere (A) – unit of charge flow equal to one
coulomb of charge past a given point in one second.
-named after the French physicist and
mathematician Andre M. Ampere (1175 –
1836)

If there a non-linear relationship between charge

and time, the current is
 
.
.

 
and
Electric current is the time rate of change of
charge, measures in amperes (A).

Example Ten coulombs of charge flow past a

given point in a wire in 2 s. What is the current?

Example How many electrons pass a given

point in 40 seconds in a conductor carrying 10
amps?
Example Determine the current flowing through
an element if the charge flow is
(a) q(t) = (3t + 8) mC
(b) q(t) = (3e-t – 5e-2t) nC

 
Example Determine the total charge transferred
over the time interval of 0  t  10 s when i(t) = t .
Example The charge that enters the BOX is shown
below. Calculate and sketch the current flowing into
the BOX between 0 and 10 milliseconds.

C1
E BOX
12 V 1µF
q(t) (mC)
4

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t (ms)
-1

-2

-3
Example The current in a conductor varies as
follows: during the first 2 sec there is a linear
change from zero to 5 amp; during the next 4
sec the current is constant at 5 amp; during the
third period of 6 sec the current decreases
linearly to 2 amp. Determine the total charge
transferred in the elapsed time of 12 sec.
MORAL LESSON
Current Sources
Ideal Current Source
a current source which has a very
high resistance.

The Ideal Independent Current Source

This is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed
current in its terminals regardless of the voltage across it.

I
The Ideal Dependent Current Source
This is a current source in which either a voltage
or a current at some other part of the circuit
determines theI
current in its terminals.
The Conventional Direction of Current and Electron Flow

V R V R
10ohm 10ohm
12V 12V

Conventional Direction of Current Electron Flow

Conventions of Voltage
_
+ a a
V1 V1
12 V 12V -12 V
12V

_ b + b
   
vab = - vba
.
Since the polarity is
reversed the value
becomes –12 V .
The current becomes –3 A because the direction
of the original current is reversed.

3 A                                                 -3 A
1. Why do birds sitting on
a power line do not get
shocked?
2. Do you think static
electricity is electricity is
dangerous? Why?
3. What makes a person
gets electrocuted is it the
voltage or current?
4. Which is impossible to
happen?
A. Voltage, no current
B. Voltage, current
C. No voltage, current
D. No voltage, no current
5. Involving high voltage,
which is dangerous AC or
DC? (Hint: 30 V and up)
QUESTIONS????
1. RECITATION
1. How do you compare the structure of an atom?
2. What are free electrons?
3. What is an electric charge.
4. What is voltage?
5. How does voltage exists between two points?
6. What is an electric current?
7. How does voltage produces current?
8. What are the types of voltage sources.
9. What are the three basic types of materials.
10.Explain the difference among conductors, insulators,
and semiconductors
11.Explain the difference between dependent and
independent voltage and current sources.
12.What is the difference between electron flow and
conventional current direction?
13.Discuss the sign conventions of voltage and current.
2. Assessments Nos. 3, 4, and
5; Practical Application No.
1
3. “Edmodo” Quiz
Practical Application No. 1

1. Suppose that your car will not start. To

determine whether the battery is faulty, you turn
on the light switch and find the lights are dim,
indicating a weak battery. You borrow a friend’s
car and a set of jumper cables. However, how do
you connect his car’s battery to yours? What do
you want his battery to do?
2. A Universal Serial Bus (USB) port is a common feature on both
desktop and notebook computers as well as many handheld devices
such as MP3 players, digital cameras, and cell phones. The USB 2.0
specification (www.usb.org) permits data transfer between a
computer and a peripheral device at rates up to 480 megabits per
second. One important feature of USB is the ability to swap
peripherals without having to power down a computer. USB ports
are also capable of supplying power to external peripherals. A USB
cable is a four-conductor cable with two signal conductors and two
conductors for providing power. The amount of current that can be
provided over a USB port is defined in the USB specification in terms
of unit loads, where one unit load is specified to be 100 mA. All USB
ports default to low-power ports at one unit load, but can be
changed under soft-ware control to high-power ports capable of
supplying up to five unit loads or 500 mA.
a. A 680 mAh lithium-ion battery is standard in a Motorola
RZZR®. If this battery is completely discharged (i.e., 0 mAh),
how long will it take to recharge the battery to its full capacity
of 680 mAh from a low-power USB port? How much charge is
stored in the battery at the end of the charging process?
b. A third-generation iPod® with a 630 mAh lithium-ion battery
is to be recharged from a high-power USB port supplying 150
mA of current. At the beginning of the recharge, 7.8 C of
charge are stored in the battery. The recharging process halts
when the stored charge reaches 35.9 C. How long does it take
to recharge the battery?
 Unit 3

RESISTANCE
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this unit, you are
expected to:

1. define resistance.
2. discuss how resistance restricts current.
3. identify the factors that affect the resistance of
conductors.
4. find the resistance of conductors.
5. identify various types of fixed and variable
resistors.
6. determine resistance value by color code.
7. define conductance.
8. calculate the cross-sectional area of a wire or cable
in terms of circular mils.
9. convert circular mils to other units.
10. compute the insulation resistance of high voltage
cables.
11. select the proper size or wattage of a resistor.
12. discuss the effect of temperature on the resistance
 ILOs TLAs A
1. define electricity.
2. name some scientists
who contributed to
1. Lecture
the development of
electricity and
2. Discussion 1.Recitation
electronics.
3. PowerPoint
3. discuss the scientist’s
contributions to
electricity and Presentatio 2.
4.
electronics.
quote some
applications of
n Seatwork
5.
electricity and
electronics.
identify various
3.
6.
electrical
components.
use metric prefixes in
Assignme
simplifying large and
small numbers. nt
7. perform
mathematical
operations involving 4. Problem
powers of ten and

8.
metric prefixes.
identify the SI units of Set
mass, force, weight,
work, power and
energy. 5.
9. discuss the difference
between direct
current and Objective
alternating current.

Test
 Important
Important Terms
Terms

Resistance wire
ohm cable
resistor stranded wire
Conductance solid wire
mil resistivity
circular mil
The Meaning of Resistance
When current flows in a material, the free electrons
move through the material and occasionally collide
with atoms. These collisions cause the electrons to
lose their energy, and thus their movement is
restricted. The more collisions, the more flow of
electrons is restricted. This restriction varies and is
determined by the type of material. The property of
a material that restricts the flow of electrons is
resistance, designated R.
Resistance is the opposition to current.

1kohm

Symbol of resistor or any resistive load with resistance R.

Ohm: The unit of Resistance

Resistance, R, is expressed in the unit of ohms,

named after Georg Simon Ohm symbolized by
the Greek letter omega ()

There is one ohm (1) of resistance when

there is one ampere (1 A) of current
through a material with one volt (1 V)
applied.
Why does a conductor heats up when
electric current flows through it?

Current
Resistors

Circuit elements that are specially designed

to have a certain amount of resistance are
called resistors.
 Resistance of Conductors

The resistance R offered by a conductor

depends on the following factors :

(i) It varies directly as its length, l.

(ii) It varies inversely as the cross-section A of the
conductor.
(iii) It depends on the nature of the material.
(iv) It also depends on the temperature of the
conductor.
Low resistance High resistance
High resistance

Low Resistance
 Current
l
l
R= 1m
1
m
A 1m
A
Smaller l Larger l
Larger A smaller A
Low R Greater R
 Neglecting the last factor for the time being, we
can say that

In terms of volume

where:
R - the resistance in ohms, 
 - the resistivity or specific resistance of the
onductor
L - the length of the conductor
A - the area of the conductor
V - the volume of the conductor
Conductance

The ability of a material to allow the flow of current.

where:

the conductance of the conductor in Siemens

(S)
the conductivity of the conductor in
Siemens/meter (S/m)
Example. What is the
conductance of a wire having a
resistance of 2.4 ohms?
Units of Resistivity and Corresponding Units
of Length and Area

Resistivity Length Area

 l A
-m m sq.m.
-cm cm sq.cm
-CM/ft ft CM
The Cross sectional Area in Circular Mils

CM = circular mils

Area = d2 circular mils where d is the

diameter expressed in mils

Area = r2 square mils where r is the

radius in mils

1 mil = 1/1000 in
Wire and Cables

Wires are those electrical conductors 8 mm2

(AWG No. 8) and smaller sizes. Cables on the other
hand, are those which are larger than wires.
Wires and cables are either:

A. Stranded
B. Solid
Example : What is the area in
circular mils of a wire with a
diameter of 0.125 in.?

Example : What is the equivalent size in

square millimeter of a cable 250 MCM?
Resistivity or Specific Resistance

If in Eq.

we put
meter and meter2, then

Hence, specific resistance of a material may be

defined as the resistance between the opposite
faces of a meter cube of that material.
Resistivity of Some Common Materials at 20C
Material Resistivity ()
-m -CM/ft
Silver
Copper 10.371
(annealed)
Gold 2.44 x 14.676
Aluminum 2.83 x 17.02
Iron 98 x 10-8 589.4
Example: What is the resistance of a
copper wire having a diameter of 10 mm and
a length of 10 m?

Example: What is the resistance of a

copper wire having a diameter of 0.25 in
and a length of 500 in?
Example: A wire measuring 6-mm 2 , 100-
m long has a resistance of 3 ohms was
drawn down until its area becomes 4
mm 2. What is its resistance in this area?
Effect of Temperature on Resistance
of Conductors

R2

 R1

T 0 t1 t2

Graph of Relationship between Resistance and

Temperature
 =

where:

- resistance of temperature t1
- resistance at temperature t2

- inferred absolute zero temperature

Inferred Absolute Zero Temperature of
Some Common Materials

Material T (C)
Aluminum 228
Annealed Copper 234.5
Hard-drawn Copper 241.5
Iron 180
Silver 243
Example : The resistance of a copper wire
measures 2.5  at 25C. Calculate its resistance
when heated to 75 C.

Example: What is the resistance at 90C of a

1000-m silver wire having a diameter of 2.5
mm?
•Questions!!!!!!!!
1. RECITATION
1.What is resistance?
2.How does a material restricts current?
3.What are the factors that affect the
resistance of conductors?
4.What are the various types of fixed and
variable resistors?
5.What is conductance?
2. Assessments Nos. 6 and 7;
Practical Application No. 2
3. “Edmodo” Quiz
Practical Application No. 2

1. You are working on an electronic circuit. The

current is 5 mA. A resistor is marked with the
following bands: brown, black, red, gold. A
voltmeter measures a voltage drop of 6.5 V
across the resistor. Is this resistor within its
tolerance rating?
2. A homeowner uses a 100-watt incandescent
lamps as a heater in an outside well pump house to
protect the pump from freezing in cold weather.
Unfortunately, however, the lamp can burn out and
leave pump unprotected. You have been asked to
install a hearth that will not burn out and leave the
pump unprotected. You have available a 100-watt,
150-ohm wire-wound resistor. Can this resistor be
connected to the 120-volt source without damage to
the resistor? If so, what would be the power output
of the resistor?
3. You have determined that a 4700-ohm, ½
-watt resistor on an electronic circuit board
is defective. Assuming room permits, can
the resistor be replaced with a 4700-ohm, 1-
watt resistor without damage to the rest of
the board, or will the higher wattage resistor
generate excessive heat that could damage
other components?
 Unit 4
THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this unit, you are
expected to:

1. describe a basic electric circuit.

2. discuss the function of a fuse or circuit
breaker.
3. discuss the causes of overcurrent.
4. determine the rating of fuse or circuit
breaker that fits to a given circuit.
5. identify closed, open, and short circuit .
6. measure voltage, current, and resistance
using both analog and digital multimeters.
7. apply Ohm’s law to determine voltage,
current, and resistance in electric circuits.
 ILOs TLAs ATs
1. define electricity.
2. name some scientists
who contributed to
1. Lecture
the development of
electricity and 2. Discussion 1. Recitation
3. PowerPoin
electronics.
3. discuss the scientist’s
contributions to
2. Seatwork
electricity and
electronics.
t 3.
4. quote some
Presentation
applications of
electricity and Assignment
electronics.
5. identify various
electrical
4.Online
Quiz
components.
6. use metric prefixes in
simplifying large and
small numbers.
7. perform
mathematical
operations involving
powers of ten and
metric prefixes.
8. identify the SI units of
mass, force, weight,
work, power and
energy.
9. discuss the difference
between direct
current and
alternating current.
 Important
Important Terms
Terms

electric circuit Closed circuit

energy source Open circuit
Conductors Digital multimeter
Insulators Analog multimeter
load Ohm’s law
Control device overcurrent
Protection device Short circuit
Fuse overloading
Circuit breaker SPST
SPDT
What is an electric circuit?
Electric Circuit is an interconnection
of electrical components in which
there is at least one path for current
flow.
Many complete electric circuits contain six parts:

1. An energy source to provide the voltage needed to

force current (electrons) through the circuit.
2. Conductors through which the current can travel.
3. Insulators to confine the current to the desired
paths (conductors, resistors, etc.)
4. A load to control the amount of current and
convert the electric energy taken from the energy
source.
5. A control device, often a switch, to start and stop
the flow of current.
6. A protection device to interrupt the circuit in case
of a circuit malfunction.
 4

5 6
2
3

1
E F1=
1_AMP
X2S1Space
12V_10W
Key
12 V
1. The Voltage Source
AC DC

AC Generator Battery

Solar Cell

DC Generator

Electronic Power
Supply
2. Conductors

3. Insulators

Discussed in Unit 3.
4. Load
5. Switches
SPST – Single-Pole Single Throw Switch

Key =
V1J1
Space
battery
bATTERY 
switch
12VX1
16 V
SPDT – Single-Pole Double Throw Switch

S1
12V_10W
12V_10W
X1
E Key =F1Space
1_AMP
X2
12 V

Show multisim circuit with switches

Push Button
V1
12 V
S1X2
X1
12V_25W
12V_25W
Key = Space
Relay
6. Overcurrent Protection Devices

Circuit Breakers Fuse

A fuse is inserted into a circuit to protect the
device / circuit from receiving too much
current when shorted. It protects the wire
from excessive current which results to
overheating.
A circuit breaker is the same function. If a
surge of current is evident through a line,
the circuit breaker "breaks" the line, opening
the flow of current.
A fuse breaks the circuit only once, then,
has to be replaced.

A circuit breaker serves as a "switch" that

closes and opens the line.
HOW CIRCUIT BREAKERS
WORKS?
What is overcurrent?

Overcurrent occurs when the current

exceeds the ampacity of the wire.

What is ampacity?

Ampacity (ampere + capacity) is the

maximum current-carrying capacity of a
wire or cable.
Causes of
Overcurrent

1. Short Circuit

2. Overloading

Show simulation (multisim overcurrent)

Example You are an electrician on the job.
The electrical blueprint shows that eight 500-
W lamps are to be installed on the same circuit.
The circuit voltage is 230 V and is protected by
a 20-A circuit breaker. Is a 20-A circuit large
enough to carry this load?
 20 A

1 Vpk
2X6U2
12
X3X2V
230 V X4121kHz
412V1
3V 12V
12
1VV
X1
X5
X8 U1
12 VX7
0°

20 A
Example If the load in the previous
example is a continuous load, is the 20-A
circuit breaker can carry the load. Note that
a continuous-use circuit can be loaded only
80% of its rating.
Circuit Components and Symbols
Device Symbol

Lamp (light
bulb) X1
12 V

Cell or 12V1
V
battery

Fuse U1
0.5_AMP
 Circuit
Breaker
Single-Pole-
Single Throw Key =J1
Space
(SPST)
Switch
Key =J2
Space
Push Button

Relay
Single-Pole
Double-
Throw
(SPDT)
Switch

Conductor
Resistor R

1kΩ

Inductor L
(coil) 1mH

C
Capacitor
1µF
 switch

battery
Key J1
=V
V1 Space
bATTERY 
16
12 X1
V
Closed, Open and Short Circuit
Closed Circuit

A closed circuit is a circuit in which the current

has a complete path.

Key J1
=V
V1 Space
battery
bATTERY 
switch
16
12 X1
V
Open Circuit

When the current path is broken so that current

cannot flow, the circuit is called an open circuit.

Key =
V1J1
Space
battery
bATTERY 
switch
12VX1
16 V
Short Circuit

A short circuit is a zero or abnormally low

resistance between two points. It is usually an
inadvertent condition.

KeyJ1
= Space
12 V X1 12 V
V1
Ohm’s Law
For a simple DC circuit, German physicist
George Simon Ohm has observed another
relationship related to the resistance of an
object. He noted that for a fixed load in a
circuit at a constant temperature, when
voltage is increased the current reading
across the load also is increased.
Consequently, as the voltage is lowered
across the load, current reading is also
lowered.
Therefore, he arrived at the conclusion that current is
directly proportional to voltage. And when the ratio
between voltage and current was computed, it has
been found out that it is approximately equal to the
resistance of the load. Thus, Ohm’s Law states that:
“The ratio between voltage and current is always
constant and is equal to the resistance of the load. (At
a constant temperature!)
 where:
I = current in amperes, A
V = voltage in volts, V
R = resistance in ohms, 

Other Ohm’s Law Formulas

Find the unknown quantities:

1.
I

V R
600Ω
12 V
2.

I = 200 mA

V 0Ω
R
12 V
3.
I = 20 mA

12 V
V R
1kΩ
Group
BASIC CIRCUIT
MEASUREMENTS
How to Use the Analog Multimeter
Example 4.3
Using the
figure to the
right, find the
correct reading
if the selector
is placed at the
following:
1) DC 10V range
2) DC 50V range
3) DC 25mA range
4) DC 2.5 mA
range
Kirchhoff ’s Law
.
.

Important Terminologies

Node – a point in which two or more components have a common

connection.

Path- if no node was encountered more than once, then the sets of
nodes and elements that we have passed through is defined as a path.

Closed Path or Loop- If the node at which we started is the same as

the node on which we ended, then the path, is by definition, a closed
path or loop.

Branch - is a single path in a network, composed of one simple

element and the node at each end of that element.
COMPONENT SYMBOLS
 1

R3
1kohm
R1 R2
I 1kohm 1kohm
1A
2
R4
1kohm

3
 1

R3
1kohm
R1 R2
I 1kohm 1kohm
1A
2
R4
1kohm

3
Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL)
The algebraic sum of all voltages in a circuit
taken around a closed path is zero.

Sign Convention
        a
       
         
V
12V

      b

Path b – a : Potential Rise = + V

Path a – b: Potential Drop = -V
Path b – a: Potential Rise = +VR
Path a – b: Potential Drop = - VR

                 +  a

                      
R
  I       
1ohm
              VR   
     
 
           
           _   b
Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)
The algebraic sum of all currents entering
and leaving a node is zero.
    I2        

                                     I3
 
I1                  
      I4

Convention:
Current entering a node: + sign
Current leaving a node: -sign
+
Example 4.7 Find V1

- +
14.000 V

V2
a b a
R
2V 30ohm
V1 V3
12V 24V

V4

e d
4V
Example Find V2

V2
a b

 
2V
-
V1 R
30ohm -10.000 V
12V
+
V4

d c
4V
Example 4.9 Find the current in the circuit.

2VA

+ V30 -
i

VA
+
-
Find I3

R1
a
15ohm
R2
I1 36ohm I2
3A   I3 5A

b
Find i3 and i6.

    I3 i4
0.9i3
0.9 i3

 
i3

i6
 R1

5Ω

E
R2 2
24 V 2Ω 01 R3
1Ω

Find the power taken by the 5-ohm  resistor
 R1

5Ω

I R2
2Ω 1
20 R3
3.1 A 1Ω

Find the power taken by the 5-ohm  resistor
Find the current through the 20-ohm
resistor.
Calculate the current flowing in each resistor
in the circuit shown.

R2 V3
V1 20ohm
3V 6V

R1 V2 R3
10ohm 20ohm
4.5V
Find the current through the 4-ohm resistor.
Calculate the current flowing through the 6-
ohm resistor
1. RECITATION
QUESTIONS:

1. What is an electric circuit?

2. What are the parts of an electric circuit?
3. What is the function of a fuse or circuit breaker?
4. What are the causes of overcurrent?
5. What is the effect of overcurrent?
6. How do you avoid overcurrent?
7. What is a closed circuit? open circuit?
8. How do you connect the voltmeter in measuring
voltage?
9. How do you connect the ammeter in measuring
current?
10.What is Ohm’s law?
2. Assessment Nos. 8, 9, and 10;
Practical Application No. 3
3. “Edmodo” Quiz
Practical Application No. 3

1. You are an electrician on the job. The electrical

blueprint shows that eight 500-W lamps are to
be installed on the same circuit. The circuit
voltage is 277 V and is protected by a 20-A
circuit breaker. Assuming that the load is
continuous, is a 20-A circuit large enough to
carry this load?
2. You have been sent to a new home. The homeowner
reports that sometimes the electric furnace trips the 240-V,
60-A circuit breaker connected to it. Upon examination, you
find that the furnace contains three 5000-W heating
elements designed to turn on in stages. For example, when
the thermostat calls for heat, the first 5000-W unit turns on.
After some period of time, the second unit will turn on, and
then, after another time delay, the third unit will turn on.
What do you think the problem is, and so would your
recommendation for correcting? Explain your answer.
3. You are an electrician installing the wiring in a new home.
The homeowner desires that a ceiling fan with light kits be
installed in five different rooms. Each fan contains a light kit
that can accommodate four 60-watt lamps. The voltage
source is 220 V. Each fan motor draws a current of 1.8
amperes when operated on high speed. It is assumed that
each fan can operate more than three hours at a time and
therefore must be considered a continuous-duty service. The
fans are to be connected to a 15-ampere circuit. Because the
devices are continuous duty, the circuit current must be
limited to 80% of the continuous connected load. How many
fans can be connected to a single 15-ampere circuit? How
many circuits will be required to supply power to all five fans?
4. A homeowner is installing a swimming pool.
You have been asked to install a circuit to operate a
600-watt underwater light and a circuiting pump.
The motor nameplate reveals that the pump has a
current draw of 8.5 amperes. The devices are
considered continuous duty. Can the power to
operate both of these devices be supplied by a
single 20-ampere circuit? The voltage source is 220
V.
 Unit 5
WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
 LEARNING
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
OUTCOMES

Aftercompleting
After completingthis
this
unit,you
unit, youare
areexpected
expected
to:
to:
 
 
1. discuss the effect of electricity.
2. explain the difference between power and energy.
3. Discuss the different types of energy conversion.
4. discuss efficiency.
5. determine the amount of power in a resistive circuit.
6. explain how energy is measured in kilowatthours.
7. Compute energy consumption and its cost.
8. Solve the terminal voltage of a battery or any other
voltage source.
9. Analyze electric power transmission and distribution
lines.
 
 Important
ImportantTerms
Terms
  

electric current Joule’s law

thermal efficiency energy
Power kilowatthour
Terminal
potential
Efficiency difference
Power loss
What is the effect of electric current?
Joule’s Law of Electric Heating

The amount of work required to maintain a

current of I amperes through a resistance of R
ohm for t second is

W.D. = I2 Rt joules
= VIt joules
= Pt joules
= V2t/R joules
 
This work is converted into heat and is dissipated
away. The amount of heat produced is

where J = 4,186 joules/kcal = 4,200 joules /

kcal (approx)
∴ H = I2Rt/4,200 kcal = Vlt/4,200 kcal
= Pt/4,200 kcal = V2t/4,200 R kcal
 Electrical Power and Energy

Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work.

Power
Power is the rate at which energy is
expended .
  

where: P = power in watts (W)

(1 watt = 1 joule/sec)

W = energy in joules (J)

t = time in sec (s)

If the energy changes non-linearly with time the
power is
 

 If and     yields

Multiplying and

 
Example 5.3 The power absorbed by the BOX shown in the
figure below is  
Calculate the energy and charge entered to the BOX in the
interval  

BOXC1
E
 
12 V 1µF
When current flows through a resistance, the
collision of the electrons give off heat resulting in a
loss of energy. There is always a certain amount of
power in an electrical circuit, and it is dependent on
the amount of

E L
12V_25W
12V

Power in an electrical circuit is seen as heat given off by the resistance

\
resistance and on the amount of current, expressed as follows:
  

This is Joule’s law which states that the heat produced in a

current carrying conductor is proportional to square of
the current.
 

 
Power Supplied or Absorbed?

The element absorbs or receives

i power if the direction of current
 
         a                                                    b is from positive to negative using
                            +      v      - the conventions direction of
current.

i
 
         a                                                    b
In this case the element
            -                       v                        + delivers or supplies power.
 The kilowatt-hour (kWh) Unit of Energy

Since power is the rate of energy usage, power utilized over

a period of time represents energy consumption. If we
multiply power and time, we have energy, symbolized by W:

Energy = Power x Time

W=Pt
 Cost of Electricity Usage

To find the cost of electricity usage on a bill, use the

following:

) 
 My Weekly Energy Consumption

Quantit Description Power Total No. of Energy

y rating Power hours Consumptio
(kW) (kW) used n
per day per Week
(kWh)
6 CFL 0.020 0.12 6 5.04
3 Electric Fan 0.1 0.3 12 25.2
1 Washing 0.25 0.25 0.5 0.125
mach.
1 ACU -1/2 HP 0.5 0.5 6 21
1 Ref 0.5 0.5 15 52.5
1 TV 0.1 0.1 12 8.4
Total 112.27
Cost = 112.27 kWh x P 10.00/kWh =
P1,122.70
Terminal Potential Difference
Energy Conversion

What are the energy conversion that takes place

in this circuit?
Efficiency

Output
Input power
power
Sometimes
expressed in
horsepower-the
mechanical output
1 HP = 746 W

 
 +

V
r
12
V1V
1.0kΩ
r r
V

_
where:

Ɛ = electromotive force
r = internal resistance
V = terminal voltage
Power Loss in Distribution Feeder Lines

r1

1Ω
r2

1Ω

L
Vs
100 V

100V_100W
1. Recitation
QUESTIONS:

1. What is electricity?
2. Discuss the probable changes in your lifestyle if the electric service in
your home were disconnected for one week.
3. What is power?
4. What is energy?
5. What are the forms energy into which the electric energy from a car
battery is converted?
6. What is the undesirable form of energy produced by both light bulbs
and electric motors?
7. What is efficiency?
8. In addition to decreasing costs, why is it important to increase the
efficiency of electric devices as much as it is practical?
9. Is the low efficiency of the lights in our home a greater disadvantage
during the cold months or the summer months? Why?
10.What happens to the temperature of an electric battery when it is
discharging? Why?
11.Many electric devices could be designed and constructed to operate
more efficiently. Why aren’t they?
12.Explain how energy is measured in kilowatthours.
2. Assessment Nos. 11 and 12
3. “Edmodo” Quiz
 Unit 6
SERIES CIRCUIT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this unit, you are
expected to:

1. identify a series circuit.

2. determine the current in a series circuit.
3. determine the total resistance in a series
circuit.
4. apply Ohm’s law to find the current,
voltages, and resistances in a series
circuit.
5. connect voltage sources to achieve a
higher voltage.
6. apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
7. devise and use voltage dividers.
8. determine the total power in a series
circuit.
 ILOs TLAs ATs
1. identify a series
circuit. 1. Lecture
2. determine the
current in a 2. Discussion 1. Recitation
3.
series circuit.
determine the 3. PowerPoin 2. Seatwork
total resistance
in a series circuit. t 3.
4. apply Ohm’s law Presentation
to find the
current, voltages,
Assignment
and resistances
in a series circuit.
4. Problem
5. connect voltage
sources to Set
achieve a higher
voltage. 5.
6. apply Kirchhoff’s

7.
voltage law.
devise and use
Objective
8.
voltage dividers.
determine the
Test
total power in a
series circuit.
 Important
Important Terms
Terms

series
Voltage divider
The Meaning of a Series Circuit

Series - components are connected end to end.

aracteristics of a Series Circuit:

1.The same current I exist on each resistor.

 
.
 
•where:
 

etc.
2. The source voltage E (or VT) is the summation of
the voltages across each resistor.

+ _ + _ + _

 
=
•where:
 

etc.
3. The total resistance RT is the sum of the
individual resistances.
4. The total power is the summation of the
powers dissipated by each resistor.

 
=
 
where:
 

 
5. Any change in one or more components will affect
the other components.
Example: Determine (a) total resistance,
(b) total current, (c) the voltage across each
resistor, (d) power dissipated by each resistor,
(e) total power.
SOLUTION:

• 

(a)
(b)
•(d)
 

(e) =
= 10 + 30 + 60 = 100 W
or = = 100 W
 Resistance of Two or More Equal Resistors
in
Series
Voltage
Divider

 
=
• 
Example: Find the voltage across .

 
= =
Voltage Sources in Series

Series Aiding Series Opposing

V4 V4
1.5 V 1.5 V

V3 V3
1.5 V
1.5 V
6V 3V
V2 V2
1.5 V 1.5 V

V1 V1
1.5 V 1.5 V
1. Recitation
QUESTIONS:
1.What is series circuit?
2.What are the characteristics of a series
circuit?
3.What is the purpose of connecting voltage
sources in series?
2. Assessment No. 13; Practical
Application No. 4
3. “Edmodo” Quiz
PRACTICAL APPLICATION:

1.A 12-V automobile head lamp is to be

used on a fishing boat with a 24-V power
system. The head lamp is rated at 50 W.
A resistor is to be connected in series
with the lamp to permit it to operate on
24 V. What should be the resistance and
power rating of the resistor?
2. Three wire-wound resistors have the
following values: 30 Ω, 80 Ω, and 100 Ω.
Each resistor has a voltage rating of 100 V. If
these three resistors are connected in series,
can they be connected to a 240-V circuit
without damage to the resistors? Explain
your answer.
3. You are an electrician working in an
industrial plant. A circuit contains eight
incandescent lamps connected in series
across 480 volts. One lamp burned out, and
you must determine which one is defective.
You have available a voltmeter, ammeter and
ohmmeter. Which meter would you use to
determine which lamp is defective in the
shortest possible time? Explain how you
would use this meter and why?
 Unit 7
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this unit, you are
expected to:

1. identify a parallel circuit.

2. apply Kirchhoff’s current law.
3. determine total resistance of a parallel
circuit.
4. apply Ohm’s law to find voltage, currents,
and resistances in a parallel circuit.
5. describe how parallel circuits act as
current divider.
6. apply the current divider principle.
7. determine the total power in a parallel
circuit.
 ILOs TLAs A
1. identify a
parallel circuit. 1.Lecture
2. apply
Kirchhoff’s 2.Discussio 1.Recitation
current law.
3. determine
total
n 2.
resistance of a
parallel circuit.
3.PowerPoi Seatwork
4. apply Ohm’s
law to find nt 3.
voltage,
currents, and
Presentati Assignme
resistances in on
a parallel
circuit.
nt
5. describe how
parallel
4. Problem
circuits act as
current Set
divider.
6. apply the
current divider
5.
7.
principle.
determine the
Objective
total power in
a parallel Test
 Important
Important Terms
Terms

parallel
Current divider
The Meaning of a Parallel Circuit

Parallel - components are connected

across each other
.
Characteristics of a Parallel Circuit

1. The same voltage V exists across each resistor .

V T = V 1 = V2 = V 3 = V n
 
where:

etc.
2. The total current IT is the sum of individual
current passing through each resistor.

 
+ + ...+
 

 
etc.
3. The reciprocal of the total resistance is
equal to the sum of the reciprocal of individual
resistances, that is,

1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + . . . 1/Rn

 
4. Just like in a series circuit, The total
power is the summation of the powers
dissipated by each resistor.

PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + . . . .Pn
 
where:
 

 
5. Each component can be controlled
independently.
.
or any change in one component will not
affect the other components.
Example Determine the (a) total resistance,
(b) current through each resistor and (c) the
total current (d) power taken by each resistor,
(e) total power
(a)
 
= 23.6 

 
(b)

 
(c )  
+ + +

(d)  

 
(e)
PT = P 1 + P 2 + P 3 + P n
= 144 + 96 + 288 + 82.29
= 610.29 W
Or  
Two Resistances in Parallel

 
Equal-Value Resistors

 
Current Divider Formula
 

IT

1.0kΩ I1 I2
R1 R2
Example: The total current flowing
through 10-ohm resistor and 25-ohm
resistor in parallel is 6 A. Find the
current through each resistor.
 

6A

I1 I2
R1 R2
10Ω 25Ω  
  

 
Voltage Sources in Parallel

Ideal voltage sources are connected in parallel in

order to supply a higher and at the same time a high
power to a load.

In industry paralleling of voltage sources such as

generators are done in order to sustain an increasing
amount of load.

Conditions of Parallel Connection of Voltage Sources:

1.They must have the same terminal voltage.
2.They must be connected in the same polarity.
2. Recitation
QUESTIONS:
1.What is a parallel circuit?
2.What are the characteristics of a parallel?
3.What is purpose of connecting voltage sources
in parallel?
4.What are the different requirements of
connecting voltage source in parallel?
5.All appliances in a household are connected in
parallel. Why?
2. Assessment No. 14 ; Practical
Application No. 5
3. “Edmodo” Quiz
PRACTICAL APPLICATION No. 5:
1.You are employed in a large industrial plant.
A 480-V, 5000-W heater is used to melt lead
in a large tank. It has been decided that the
heater is not sufficient to raise the
temperature of the lead to the desired level.
A second 5000-W heater is to be installed on
the same circuit. What will be the circuit
current after installation of the second
heater, and what is the minimum size circuit
breaker that can be used if this is a
continuous-duty circuit?
2. You are an electrician. You have been asked by a
homeowner to install a lighted mirror in a bathroom.
The mirror contains eight 40-watt lamps. Upon
checking the service panel you discover that the
bathroom circuit is connected to a single 120-volt, 20-
ampere circuit breaker. At the present time, the circuit
supplies power to an electric wall heater rated at 1000
watts, a ceiling fan with a light kit, and a light fixture
over the mirror. The fan motor has a full-load current
draw of 3.2 amperes and the light kit contains three 60-
watt lamps. The homeowner asked whether the
present light fixture over the mirror can be replaced by
the lighted mirror. Assuming all loads are continuous,
can the present circuit supply the power needed to
operate all the loads without overloading the circuit?
 Unit 9
COMBINATION CIRCUITS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this unit, you are
expected to:

 
1. identify series and parallel portions
of a series-parallel circuit and
recognize the relationships of all
resistors.
2. determine the total resistance of a
series-parallel circuit.
3. determine the currents and voltages
in a series-parallel circuit.
4. transform delta to wye connection,
vice versa.
Series- Parallel Circuit

R1

75ohm
R2 Rt
75ohm R3
125ohm
150ohm
Parallel-Series Circuit:

R1
75ohm

R3
Rt
150ohm 75ohm
R2
75ohm
Example Four bulbs each rated 110 V,
60 W are connected in parallel to a 230-V
source. Calculate the resistance to be
connected in series with the line so that the
voltage across the bulbs does not exceed
110 volts.
 The Wheatstone Bridge

The bridge circuit is widely used in measurement

devices and other applications. We will consider
the balanced bridge, which can be used to
measure unknown resistance values. This circuit,
shown in Figure 10.1(a) is known as Wheatstone
bridge. Usually a Wheatstone bridge is drawn in
similar manner like in Figure 10.1 (b). Resistors
R1 and R3 have fixed values, R2 is a variable
resistor and Rx is unknown.
 
A bridge is said to be balanced when the
voltage (Vout) across the output terminals A
and B is zero; that is, VAC = VAB and also VCD
= VBD . To find the unknown resistance Rx ,

so that,

Note: In laboratory experiments R2 is

adjusted until Vout becomes zero.
 A

R1
Rx

 
1.0kΩ 2 12 V C
11.0kΩ V out  B
E 1.0kΩ 3 1.0kΩ
4

R2 R3

D
•(b)

Figure 10.1. The Wheatstone

Bridge
Example If in figure10.1 R1 is 25 Ω ,
R3 is 20 Ω , R2 is adjusted to 8.93 Ω, find the
value of Rx.

Solution:
Delta and Wye Connections

Three branches in an electrical network can be

connected in number of forms but most
common among them is either wye (star) or
delta form.

In delta connection three branches are so

connected that they form a closed loop that is
they are mesh connected. As these three
branches are connected nose to tail they form
a triangular closed loop, this type of
connection shown as delta connection.
On the other hand when either terminal of
three branches are connected to a common
point to form a Y like pattern is known as wye
(star) connection.

But these star (wye) and delta connection can

be transformed from one form to other. For
simplifying complex network, it is often
required delta to wye of wye to delta
transformation.
Delta-Wye Transformation
 
Formulas

R1 =

R2 =

R3 =
Wye-Delta Transformation
 
Formulas

 
=

 
RC =
Reminder: A delta and wye connection need not to be
-shape and Y-shape respectively. They could be
drawn like shown in figures below. Figure (a) which
is a delta connection may also be called a -network
and Figure b, a wye connection, is also called a T-
network.