1

Chapter 6: Classes and

Data Abstraction
Outline
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Structure Definitions
6.3 Accessing Structure Members
6.4 Implementing a User-Defined Type Time with a struct
6.5 Implementing a Time Abstract Data Type with a class
6.6 Class Scope and Accessing Class Members
6.7 Separating Interface from Implementation
6.8 Controlling Access to Members
6.9 Access Functions and Utility Functions
6.10 Initializing Class Objects: Constructors
6.11 Using Default Arguments with Constructors
6.12 Destructors
6.13 When Constructors and Destructors Are Called
6.14 Using Set and Get Functions
6.15 Subtle Trap: Returning a Reference to a
private Data Member
6.16 Default Memberwise Assignment
6.17 Software Reusability
 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
 2

6.1 Introduction

• Object-oriented programming (OOP)

– Encapsulates data (attributes) and functions (behavior) into
packages called classes
• Information hiding
– Class objects communicate across well-defined interfaces
– Implementation details hidden within classes themselves
• User-defined (programmer-defined) types: classes
– Data (data members)
– Functions (member functions or methods)
– Similar to blueprints – reusable
– Class instance: object

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 3

6.2 Structure Definitions

• Structures
– Aggregate data types built using elements of other types

struct Time { Structure tag

int hour;
int minute; Structure members
int second;
};
• Structure member naming
– In same struct: must have unique names
– In different structs: can share name
• struct definition must end with semicolon

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 4

6.2 Structure Definitions

• Self-referential structure
– Structure member cannot be instance of enclosing struct
– Structure member can be pointer to instance of enclosing
struct (self-referential structure)
• Used for linked lists, queues, stacks and trees
• struct definition
– Creates new data type used to declare variables
– Structure variables declared like variables of other types
– Examples:
• Time timeObject;
• Time timeArray[ 10 ];
• Time *timePtr;
• Time &timeRef = timeObject;

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 5

6.3 Accessing Structure Members

• Member access operators

– Dot operator (.) for structure and class members
– Arrow operator (->) for structure and class members via
pointer to object
– Print member hour of timeObject:
cout << timeObject.hour;
OR
timePtr = &timeObject;
cout << timePtr->hour;
– timePtr->hour same as ( *timePtr ).hour
• Parentheses required
– * lower precedence than .

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 6
6.4 Implementing a User-Defined Type Time
with a struct
• Default: structures passed by value
– Pass structure by reference
• Avoid overhead of copying structure
• C-style structures
– No “interface”
• If implementation changes, all programs using that struct
must change accordingly
– Cannot print as unit
• Must print/format member by member
– Cannot compare in entirety
• Must compare member by member

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 7
1 // Fig. 6.1: fig06_01.cpp
2 // Create a structure, set its members, and print it.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig06_01.cpp
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
(1 of 3)
7
8 #include <iomanip>
9
10 using std::setfill; Define structure type Time
11 using std::setw;
with three integer members.
12
13 // structure definition
14 struct Time {
15 int hour; // 0-23 (24-hour clock format)
16 int minute; // 0-59
17 int second; // 0-59
18 Pass references to constant
19 }; // end struct Time Time objects to eliminate
20 copying overhead.
21 void printUniversal( const Time & ); // prototype
22 void printStandard( const Time & ); // prototype
23

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 8
24 int main()
25 { Use dot operator to initialize
Outline
26 Time dinnerTime; // structure
variablemembers.
of new type Time
27
fig06_01.cpp
28 dinnerTime.hour = 18; // set hour member of dinnerTime
29 dinnerTime.minute = 30; // set minute member of dinnerTime
(2 of 3)
30 dinnerTime.second = 0; // set second member of dinnerTime
31
32 cout << "Dinner will be held at ";
33 printUniversal( dinnerTime );
34 cout << " universal time,\nwhich is ";
35 printStandard( dinnerTime );
Direct access to data allows
36 cout << " standard time.\n";
37
assignment of bad values.
38 dinnerTime.hour = 29; // set hour to invalid value
39 dinnerTime.minute = 73; // set minute to invalid value
40
41 cout << "\nTime with invalid values: ";
42 printUniversal( dinnerTime );
43 cout << endl;
44
45 return 0;
46
47 } // end main
48

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 9
49 // print time in universal-time format
50 void printUniversal( const Time &t )
Outline
51 {
52 cout << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << t.hour << ":"
fig06_01.cpp
53 << setw( 2 ) << t.minute << ":"
54 << setw( 2 ) << t.second;
(3 of 3)
55
56 } // end function printUniversal
Use parameterized stream
fig06_01.cpp
57
manipulator setfill.
output (1 of 1)
58 // print time in standard-time format
Use dot operator to access
59 void printStandard( const Time &t )
data members.
60 {
61 cout << ( ( t.hour == 0 || t.hour == 12 ) ?
62 12 : t.hour % 12 ) << ":" << setfill( '0' )
63 << setw( 2 ) << t.minute << ":"
64 << setw( 2 ) << t.second
65 << ( t.hour < 12 ? " AM" : " PM" );
66
67 } // end function printStandard

Dinner will be held at 18:30:00 universal time,

which is 6:30:00 PM standard time.

Time with invalid values: 29:73:00

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 10
6.5 Implementing a Time Abstract Data Type
with a class
• Classes
– Model objects
• Attributes (data members)
• Behaviors (member functions)
– Defined using keyword class
– Member functions
• Methods
• Invoked in response to messages
• Member access specifiers
– public:
• Accessible wherever object of class in scope
– private:
• Accessible only to member functions of class
– protected:
 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
 11
6.5 Implementing a Time Abstract Data Type
with a class
• Constructor function
– Special member function
• Initializes data members
• Same name as class
– Called when object instantiated
– Several constructors
• Function overloading
– No return type

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 12
1 class Time {
2
Outline
3 public: Function prototypes for
4 Time(); Definition of class begins
Class//body startspublic
constructorwith leftmember functions.
with keyword class. Class Time
5 void setTime( int, int, int brace.
); // set hour, minute, second
6 void printUniversal(); Member // access specifiers.
print universal-time format
definition
7 void printStandard();
Constructor has same name as
// print standard-time format (1 of 1)
8 Time, anddata
class, private no return
members
9 private: type. accessible only to member
10 int hour; // 0 - 23 (24-hour clock format)
functions.
11 int minute; Class body
// Definition
0 - 59 ends
terminatesright
with with
12 int second; brace.
// 0 - 59
semicolon.
13
14 }; // end class Time

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 13
6.5 Implementing a Time Abstract Data Type
with a class
• Objects of class
– After class definition
• Class name new type specifier
– C++ extensible language
• Object, array, pointer and reference declarations
– Example: Class name becomes new
type specifier.
Time sunset; // object of type Time
Time arrayOfTimes[ 5 ]; // array of Time objects
Time *pointerToTime; // pointer to a Time object
Time &dinnerTime = sunset; // reference to a Time object

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 14
6.5 Implementing a Time Abstract Data Type
with a class
• Member functions defined outside class
– Binary scope resolution operator (::)
• “Ties” member name to class name
• Uniquely identify functions of particular class
• Different classes can have member functions with same name
– Format for defining member functions
ReturnType ClassName::MemberFunctionName( ){
…
}
– Does not change whether function public or private
• Member functions defined inside class
– Do not need scope resolution operator, class name
– Compiler attempts inline
• Outside class, inline explicitly with keyword inline

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 15
1 // Fig. 6.3: fig06_03.cpp
2 // Time class.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig06_03.cpp
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
(1 of 5)
7
8 #include <iomanip>
9
10 using std::setfill;
11 using std::setw; Define class Time.
12
13 // Time abstract data type (ADT) definition
14 class Time {
15
16 public:
17 Time(); // constructor
18 void setTime( int, int, int ); // set hour, minute, second
19 void printUniversal(); // print universal-time format
20 void printStandard(); // print standard-time format
21

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 16
22 private:
23 int hour; // 0 - 23 (24-hour clock format)
Outline
24 int minute; // 0 - 59
25 int second; // 0 - 59
fig06_03.cpp
26
27 }; // end class Time
(2 of 5)
28
29 // Time constructor initializes each data member to zero and
30
Constructor initializes
// ensures all Time objects start in a consistent state
31 Time::Time() private data members
32 { to 0.
33 hour = minute = second = 0;
34
35 } // end Time constructor
36
37 // set new Time value using universal time, perform validity
38 // checks on the data values and set invalid values to zero public member
39 void Time::setTime( int h, int m, int s )
function checks
40 {
parameter values for
41 hour = ( h >= 0 && h < 24 ) ? h : 0;
42 minute = ( m >= 0 && m < 60 ) ? m : 0;
validity before setting
43 second = ( s >= 0 && s < 60 ) ? s : 0; private data
44 members.
45 } // end function setTime
46

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 17
47 // print Time in universal format
48 void Time::printUniversal()
Outline
49 {
50 cout << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << hour << ":"
fig06_03.cpp
51 << setw( 2 ) << minute << ":"
52 << setw( 2 ) << second;
(3 of 5)
53
54 } // end function printUniversal No arguments (implicitly
55 “know” purpose is to print
56 // print Time in standard format data members); member
57 void Time::printStandard() function calls more concise.
58 {
59 cout << ( ( hour == 0 || hour == 12 ) ? 12 : hour % 12 )
60 << ":" << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << minute
61 << ":" << setw( 2 ) << second
62 << ( hour < 12 ? " AM" : " PM" );
63
64 } // end function printStandard
Declare variable t to be
65
object of class Time.
66 int main()
67 {
68 Time t; // instantiate object t of class Time
69

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 18
70 // output Time object t's initial values
71 cout << "The initial universal time is ";
Outline
72 t.printUniversal(); // 00:00:00
73
74
Invoke public member
cout << "\nThe initial standard time is ";
fig06_03.cpp
75 t.printStandard(); // 12:00:00 AM functions to print time. (4 of 5)
76
77 t.setTime( 13, 27, 6 ); // change time
78
79 Set data members
// output Time object t's new values using
80 cout << "\n\nUniversal time after public
setTime is ";
member function.
81 t.printUniversal(); // 13:27:06
82
Attempt to set data members
83 cout << "\nStandard time after setTime is ";
84 t.printStandard();
to invalid values
// 1:27:06 PM
using
85 public member function.
86 t.setTime( 99, 99, 99 ); // attempt invalid settings
87
88 // output t's values after specifying invalid values
89 cout << "\n\nAfter attempting invalid settings:"
90 << "\nUniversal time: ";
91 t.printUniversal(); // 00:00:00
92

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 19
93 cout << "\nStandard time: ";
94 t.printStandard(); // 12:00:00 AM
Outline
95 cout << endl;
96
fig06_03.cpp
97 return 0;
98
(5 of 5)
99 } // end main
fig06_03.cpp
The initial universal time is 00:00:00 output (1 of 1)
The initial standard time is 12:00:00 AM

Universal time after setTime is 13:27:06

Standard time after setTime is 1:27:06 PM
Data members set to 0 after
After attempting invalid settings:
attempting invalid settings.
Universal time: 00:00:00
Standard time: 12:00:00 AM

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 20
6.5 Implementing a Time Abstract Data Type
with a class
• Destructors
– Same name as class
• Preceded with tilde (~)
– No arguments
– Cannot be overloaded
– Performs “termination housekeeping”

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 21
6.5 Implementing a Time Abstract Data Type
with a class
• Advantages of using classes
– Simplify programming
– Interfaces
• Hide implementation
– Software reuse
• Composition (aggregation)
– Class objects included as members of other classes
• Inheritance
– New classes derived from old

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 22
6.6 Class Scope and Accessing Class
Members
• Class scope
– Data members, member functions
– Within class scope
• Class members
– Immediately accessible by all member functions
– Referenced by name
– Outside class scope
• Referenced through handles
– Object name, reference to object, pointer to object
• File scope
– Nonmember functions

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 23
6.6 Class Scope and Accessing Class
Members
• Function scope
– Variables declared in member function
– Only known to function
– Variables with same name as class-scope variables
• Class-scope variable “hidden”
– Access with scope resolution operator (::)
ClassName::classVariableName
– Variables only known to function they are defined in
– Variables are destroyed after function completion

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 24
6.6 Class Scope and Accessing Class
Members
• Operators to access class members
– Identical to those for structs
– Dot member selection operator (.)
• Object
• Reference to object
– Arrow member selection operator (->)
• Pointers

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 25
1 // Fig. 6.4: fig06_04.cpp
2 // Demonstrating the class member access operators . and ->
Outline
3 //
4 // CAUTION: IN FUTURE EXAMPLES WE AVOID PUBLIC DATA!
fig06_04.cpp
5 #include <iostream>
6
(1 of 2)
7 using std::cout;
8 using std::endl;
9
10 // class Count definition
11 class Count { Data member x public to
12 illustrate class member access
13 public: operators; typically data
14 int x; members private.
15
16 void print()
17 {
18 cout << x << endl;
19 }
20
21 }; // end class Count
22

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 26
23 int main()
24 {
Outline
25 Count counter; // create counter object
26 Count *counterPtr = &counter; // create pointer to counter
fig06_04.cpp
27 Count &counterRef = counter; // Use
create reference
dot member to counter
selection (2 of 2)
28 operator for counter object.
29 cout << "Assign 1 to x and print using the object's name: ";
30 counter.x = 1; // assign 1 to data member x fig06_04.cpp
31 counter.print(); // call memberUse dot member
function printselection output (1 of 1)
32 operator for counterRef
33 cout << "Assign 2 to x and print using a reference:
reference to object. ";
34 counterRef.x = 2; // assign 2 to data member x
35 counterRef.print(); // call member Use arrow print
function member selection
36 operator for counterPtr
37 cout << "Assign 3 to x and print pointer
using to object.";
a pointer:
38 counterPtr->x = 3; // assign 3 to data member x
39 counterPtr->print(); // call member function print
40
41 return 0;
42
43 } // end main

Assign 1 to x and print using the object's name: 1

Assign 2 to x and print using a reference: 2
Assign 3 to x and print using a pointer: 3

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 27
6.7 Separating Interface from
Implementation
• Separating interface from implementation
– Advantage
• Easier to modify programs
– Disadvantage
• Header files
– Portions of implementation
• Inline member functions
– Hints about other implementation
• private members
• Can hide more with proxy class

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 28
6.7 Separating Interface from
Implementation
• Header files
– Class definitions and function prototypes
– Included in each file using class
• #include
– File extension .h
• Source-code files
– Member function definitions
– Same base name
• Convention
– Compiled and linked

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 29
1 // Fig. 6.5: time1.h
2 // Declaration of class Time.
Outline
3 // Member functions are defined in time1.cpp
Preprocessor code to prevent
4 multiple inclusions. time1.h (1 of 1)
5 // prevent multiple inclusions of header file
6 #ifndef TIME1_H
7 #define TIME1_H
8 Code between these directives
9 // Time abstract data type
“If not definition
defined”Preprocessor directivedefines
not included if name
10 class Time { Naming convention:
name TIME1_H.
TIME1_H already defined.
11 header file name with
12 public: underscore replacing period.
13 Time(); // constructor
14 void setTime( int, int, int ); // set hour, minute, second
15 void printUniversal(); // print universal-time format
16 void printStandard(); // print standard-time format
17
18 private:
19 int hour; // 0 - 23 (24-hour clock format)
20 int minute; // 0 - 59
21 int second; // 0 - 59
22
23 }; // end class Time
24
25 #endif

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 30
1 // Fig. 6.6: time1.cpp
2 // Member-function definitions for class Time.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
time1.cpp (1 of 3)
5 using std::cout;
6
7 #include <iomanip>
8
9 using std::setfill;
10 using std::setw; Include header file
11 time1.h.
12 // include definition of class Time from time1.h
13 #include "time1.h"
14
15 // Time constructor initializes each data member to zero.
16 // Ensures all Time objects Name
start of
inheader
a consistent state.
file enclosed
17 Time::Time() in quotes; angle brackets
18 { cause preprocessor to assume
19 hour = minute = second = 0;
header part of C++ Standard
20
Library.
21 } // end Time constructor
22

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 31
23 // Set new Time value using universal time. Perform validity
24 // checks on the data values. Set invalid values to zero.
Outline
25 void Time::setTime( int h, int m, int s )
26 {
time1.cpp (2 of 3)
27 hour = ( h >= 0 && h < 24 ) ? h : 0;
28 minute = ( m >= 0 && m < 60 ) ? m : 0;
29 second = ( s >= 0 && s < 60 ) ? s : 0;
30
31 } // end function setTime
32
33 // print Time in universal format
34 void Time::printUniversal()
35 {
36 cout << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << hour << ":"
37 << setw( 2 ) << minute << ":"
38 << setw( 2 ) << second;
39
40 } // end function printUniversal
41

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 32
42 // print Time in standard format
43 void Time::printStandard()
Outline
44 {
45 cout << ( ( hour == 0 || hour == 12 ) ? 12 : hour % 12 )
time1.cpp (3 of 3)
46 << ":" << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << minute
47 << ":" << setw( 2 ) << second
48 << ( hour < 12 ? " AM" : " PM" );
49
50 } // end function printStandard

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 33
1 // Fig. 6.7: fig06_07.cpp
2 // Program to test class Time.
Outline
3 // NOTE: This file must be compiled with time1.cpp.
4 #include <iostream>
fig06_07.cpp
5
6 using std::cout;
(1 of 2)
7 using std::endl; Include header file time1.h
8 to ensure correct
9 // include definition of class Time from time1.h
creation/manipulation and
10 #include "time1.h" determine size of Time class
11 object.
12 int main()
13 {
14 Time t; // instantiate object t of class Time
15
16 // output Time object t's initial values
17 cout << "The initial universal time is ";
18 t.printUniversal(); // 00:00:00
19 cout << "\nThe initial standard time is ";
20 t.printStandard(); // 12:00:00 AM
21
22 t.setTime( 13, 27, 6 ); // change time
23

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 34
24 // output Time object t's new values
25 cout << "\n\nUniversal time after setTime is ";
Outline
26 t.printUniversal(); // 13:27:06
27 cout << "\nStandard time after setTime is ";
fig06_07.cpp
28 t.printStandard(); // 1:27:06 PM
29
(2 of 2)
30 t.setTime( 99, 99, 99 ); // attempt invalid settings
31 fig06_07.cpp
32 // output t's values after specifying invalid values output (1 of 1)
33 cout << "\n\nAfter attempting invalid settings:"
34 << "\nUniversal time: ";
35 t.printUniversal(); // 00:00:00
36 cout << "\nStandard time: ";
37 t.printStandard(); // 12:00:00 AM
38 cout << endl;
39
40 return 0;
41
42 } // end main

The initial universal time is 00:00:00

The initial standard time is 12:00:00 AM

Universal time after setTime is 13:27:06

Standard time after setTime is 1:27:06 PM

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 35

6.8 Controlling Access to Members

• Access modes
– private
• Default access mode
• Accessible to member functions and friends
– public
• Accessible to any function in program with handle to class
object
– protected
• Chapter 9

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 36
1 // Fig. 6.8: fig06_08.cpp
2 // Demonstrate errors resulting from attempts
Outline
3 // to access private class members.
4 #include <iostream>
fig06_08.cpp
5
6 using std::cout;
(1 of 1)
7
8 // include definition of class Time from time1.h
9 #include "time1.h"
10
11 int main()
12 {
13 Time t;
Recall data member hour is
// create Time object
14 private; attempts to access
15 private members results in
16 t.hour = 7; // error: 'Time::hour' Data member minute also
error. is not accessible
17 private; attempts to access
18 // error: 'Time::minute' is not accessible private members produces
19 cout << "minute = " << t.minute;
error.
20
21 return 0;
22
23 } // end main

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 37
D:\cpphtp4_examples\ch06\Fig6_06\Fig06_06.cpp(16) : error C2248:
'hour' : cannot access private member declared in class 'Time' Outline
D:\cpphtp4_examples\ch06\Fig6_06\Fig06_06.cpp(19) : error C2248:
'minute' : cannot access private member declared in class 'Time'
fig06_08.cpp
output (1 of 1)
Errors produced by
attempting to access
private members.

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 38

6.8 Controlling Access to Members

• Class member access

– Default private
– Explicitly set to private, public, protected
• struct member access
– Default public
– Explicitly set to private, public, protected
• Access to class’s private data
– Controlled with access functions (accessor methods)
• Get function
– Read private data
• Set function
– Modify private data

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 39

6.9 Access Functions and Utility Functions

• Access functions
– public
– Read/display data
– Predicate functions
• Check conditions
• Utility functions (helper functions)
– private
– Support operation of public member functions
– Not intended for direct client use

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 40
1 // Fig. 6.9: salesp.h
2 // SalesPerson class definition.
Outline
3 // Member functions defined in salesp.cpp.
4 #ifndef SALESP_H
salesp.h (1 of 1)
5 #define SALESP_H
6
7 class SalesPerson {
8 Set access function
9 public: performs validity
10 SalesPerson(); // constructor
checks.
11 void getSalesFromUser(); // input sales from keyboard
12 void setSales( int, double ); // set sales for a month
13 void printAnnualSales();
private utility
// summarize and print sales
14 function.
15 private:
16 double totalAnnualSales(); // utility function
17 double sales[ 12 ]; // 12 monthly sales figures
18
19 }; // end class SalesPerson
20
21 #endif

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 41
1 // Fig. 6.10: salesp.cpp
2 // Member functions for class SalesPerson.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
salesp.cpp (1 of 3)
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8 using std::fixed;
9
10 #include <iomanip>
11
12 using std::setprecision;
13
14 // include SalesPerson class definition from salesp.h
15 #include "salesp.h"
16
17 // initialize elements of array sales to 0.0
18 SalesPerson::SalesPerson()
19 {
20 for ( int i = 0; i < 12; i++ )
21 sales[ i ] = 0.0;
22
23 } // end SalesPerson constructor
24

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 42
25 // get 12 sales figures from the user at the keyboard
26 void SalesPerson::getSalesFromUser()
Outline
27 {
28 double salesFigure;
salesp.cpp (2 of 3)
29
30 for ( int i = 1; i <= 12; i++ ) {
31 cout << "Enter sales amount for month " << i << ": ";
32 cin >> salesFigure;
33 setSales( i, salesFigure );
34
35 } // end for
36
37 } // end function getSalesFromUser
38
39 // set one of the 12 monthly sales figures; function subtracts
40 // one from month value for proper subscript in sales array
Set access function performs
41 void SalesPerson::setSales( int month, double amount )
42 {
validity checks.
43 // test for valid month and amount values
44 if ( month >= 1 && month <= 12 && amount > 0 )
45 sales[ month - 1 ] = amount; // adjust for subscripts 0-11
46
47 else // invalid month or amount value
48 cout << "Invalid month or sales figure" << endl;

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 43
49
50 } // end function setSales
Outline
51
52 // print total annual sales (with help of utility function)
salesp.cpp (3 of 3)
53 void SalesPerson::printAnnualSales()
54 {
55 cout << setprecision( 2 ) << fixed
56 << "\nThe total annual sales are: $"
57 << totalAnnualSales() << endl; // call utility function
58
59 } // end function printAnnualSales
60 private utility function to
61 // private utility function to total annual sales help function
62 double SalesPerson::totalAnnualSales() printAnnualSales;
63 { encapsulates logic of
64 double total = 0.0; // initialize total manipulating sales array.
65
66 for ( int i = 0; i < 12; i++ ) // summarize sales results
67 total += sales[ i ];
68
69 return total;
70
71 } // end function totalAnnualSales

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 44
1 // Fig. 6.11: fig06_11.cpp
2 // Demonstrating a utility function.
Outline
3 // Compile this program with salesp.cpp
4
fig06_11.cpp
5 // include SalesPerson class definition from salesp.h
6 #include "salesp.h"
(1 of 1)
7
8 int main() Simple sequence of member
9 {
function calls; logic
10 SalesPerson s; // create SalesPerson object s
encapsulated in member
11
12 s.getSalesFromUser(); //
functions.
note simple sequential code; no
13 s.printAnnualSales(); // control structures in main
14
15 return 0;
16
17 } // end main

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 45
Enter sales amount for month 1: 5314.76
Enter sales amount for month 2: 4292.38
Outline
Enter sales amount for month 3: 4589.83
Enter sales amount for month 4: 5534.03
fig06_11.cpp
Enter sales amount for month 5: 4376.34
Enter sales amount for month 6: 5698.45
output (1 of 1)
Enter sales amount for month 7: 4439.22
Enter sales amount for month 8: 5893.57
Enter sales amount for month 9: 4909.67
Enter sales amount for month 10: 5123.45
Enter sales amount for month 11: 4024.97
Enter sales amount for month 12: 5923.92

The total annual sales are: $60120.59

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 46

6.10 Initializing Class Objects: Constructors

• Constructors
– Initialize data members
• Or can set later
– Same name as class
– No return type
• Initializers
– Passed as arguments to constructor
– In parentheses to right of class name before semicolon
Class-type ObjectName( value1,value2,…);

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 47
6.11 Using Default Arguments with
Constructors
• Constructors
– Can specify default arguments
– Default constructors
• Defaults all arguments
OR
• Explicitly requires no arguments
• Can be invoked with no arguments
• Only one per class

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 48
1 // Fig. 6.12: time2.h
2 // Declaration of class Time.
Outline
3 // Member functions defined in time2.cpp.
4
time2.h (1 of 1)
5 // prevent multiple inclusions of header file
6 #ifndef TIME2_H
7 #define TIME2_H
8
9 // Time abstract data type definition
10 class Time { Default constructor specifying
11 all arguments.
12 public:
13 Time( int = 0, int = 0, int = 0); // default constructor
14 void setTime( int, int, int ); // set hour, minute, second
15 void printUniversal(); // print universal-time format
16 void printStandard(); // print standard-time format
17
18 private:
19 int hour; // 0 - 23 (24-hour clock format)
20 int minute; // 0 - 59
21 int second; // 0 - 59
22
23 }; // end class Time
24
25 #endif

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 49
1 // Fig. 6.13: time2.cpp
2 // Member-function definitions for class Time.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
time2.cpp (1 of 3)
5 using std::cout;
6
7 #include <iomanip>
8
9 using std::setfill;
10 using std::setw;
11
12 // include definition of class Time from time2.h
13 #include "time2.h"
14 Constructor calls setTime
15 // Time constructor initializes each data member to zero;
to validate passed (or default)
16 // ensures all Time objects start in a consistent state
values.
17 Time::Time( int hr, int min, int sec )
18 {
19 setTime( hr, min, sec ); // validate and set time
20
21 } // end Time constructor
22

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 50
23 // set new Time value using universal time, perform validity
24 // checks on the data values and set invalid values to zero
Outline
25 void Time::setTime( int h, int m, int s )
26 {
time2.cpp (2 of 3)
27 hour = ( h >= 0 && h < 24 ) ? h : 0;
28 minute = ( m >= 0 && m < 60 ) ? m : 0;
29 second = ( s >= 0 && s < 60 ) ? s : 0;
30
31 } // end function setTime
32
33 // print Time in universal format
34 void Time::printUniversal()
35 {
36 cout << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << hour << ":"
37 << setw( 2 ) << minute << ":"
38 << setw( 2 ) << second;
39
40 } // end function printUniversal
41

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 51
42 // print Time in standard format
43 void Time::printStandard()
Outline
44 {
45 cout << ( ( hour == 0 || hour == 12 ) ? 12 : hour % 12 )
time2.cpp (3 of 3)
46 << ":" << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << minute
47 << ":" << setw( 2 ) << second
48 << ( hour < 12 ? " AM" : " PM" );
49
50 } // end function printStandard

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 52
1 // Fig. 6.14: fig06_14.cpp
2 // Demonstrating a default constructor for class Time.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig06_14.cpp
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
(1 of 2)
7
8 // include definition of class Time from time2.h
9 #include "time2.h"
10
11 int main()
12 { Initialize Time
13 Time t1; // all arguments defaulted objects using
14 Time t2( 2 ); // minute and second defaulted
default arguments.
15 Time t3( 21, 34 ); // second defaulted
16 Time t4( 12, 25, 42 ); // all values specified
17 Time t5( 27, 74, 99 ); // all bad values specified
18
19 cout << "Constructed with:\n\n" Initialize Time object with
20 << "all default arguments:\n "; invalid values; validity
21 t1.printUniversal(); // 00:00:00 checking will set values to 0.
22 cout << "\n ";
23 t1.printStandard(); // 12:00:00 AM
24

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 53
25 cout << "\n\nhour specified; default minute and second:\n ";
26 t2.printUniversal(); // 02:00:00
Outline
27 cout << "\n ";
28 t2.printStandard(); // 2:00:00 AM
fig06_14.cpp
29
30 cout << "\n\nhour and minute specified; default second:\n ";
(2 of 2)
31 t3.printUniversal(); // 21:34:00
32 cout << "\n ";
33 t3.printStandard(); // 9:34:00 PM
34
35 cout << "\n\nhour, minute, and second specified:\n ";
36 t4.printUniversal(); // 12:25:42
37 cout << "\n ";
38 t4.printStandard(); // 12:25:42 PM
39 t5 constructed with invalid
40 cout << "\n\nall invalid values specified:\n "; arguments; values set to 0.
41 t5.printUniversal(); // 00:00:00
42 cout << "\n ";
43 t5.printStandard(); // 12:00:00 AM
44 cout << endl;
45
46 return 0;
47
48 } // end main

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 54
Constructed with:
Outline
all default arguments:
00:00:00
fig06_14.cpp
12:00:00 AM
output (1 of 1)
hour specified; default minute and second:
02:00:00
2:00:00 AM

hour and minute specified; default second:

21:34:00
9:34:00 PM

hour, minute, and second specified:

12:25:42
12:25:42 PM

all invalid values specified:

00:00:00
12:00:00 AM

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 55

6.12 Destructors

• Destructors
– Special member function
– Same name as class
• Preceded with tilde (~)
– No arguments
– No return value
– Cannot be overloaded
– Performs “termination housekeeping”
• Before system reclaims object’s memory
– Reuse memory for new objects
– No explicit destructor
• Compiler creates “empty” destructor”

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 56
6.13 When Constructors and Destructors
Are Called
• Constructors and destructors
– Called implicitly by compiler
• Order of function calls
– Depends on order of execution
• When execution enters and exits scope of objects
– Generally, destructor calls reverse order of constructor calls

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 57
6.13 When Constructors and Destructors
Are Called
• Order of constructor, destructor function calls
– Global scope objects
• Constructors
– Before any other function (including main)
• Destructors
– When main terminates (or exit function called)
– Not called if program terminates with abort
– Automatic local objects
• Constructors
– When objects defined
• Each time execution enters scope
• Destructors
– When objects leave scope
• Execution exits block in which object defined
– Not called if program ends with exit or abort
 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
 58
6.13 When Constructors and Destructors
Are Called
• Order of constructor, destructor function calls
– static local objects
• Constructors
– Exactly once
– When execution reaches point where object defined
• Destructors
– When main terminates or exit function called
– Not called if program ends with abort

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 59
1 // Fig. 6.15: create.h
2 // Definition of class CreateAndDestroy.
Outline
3 // Member functions defined in create.cpp.
4 #ifndef CREATE_H
create.h (1 of 1)
5 #define CREATE_H
6
7 class CreateAndDestroy {
8
Constructor and destructor
9 public: member functions.
10 CreateAndDestroy( int, char * ); // constructor
11 ~CreateAndDestroy(); // destructor
private members to show
12
order of constructor,
13 private:
14 int objectID;
destructor function calls.
15 char *message;
16
17 }; // end class CreateAndDestroy
18
19 #endif

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 60
1 // Fig. 6.16: create.cpp
2 // Member-function definitions for class CreateAndDestroy
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
create.cpp (1 of 2)
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // include CreateAndDestroy class definition from create.h
9 #include "create.h"
10
11 // constructor
12 CreateAndDestroy::CreateAndDestroy(
13 int objectNumber, char *messagePtr )
14 { Output message to
15 objectID = objectNumber;
demonstrate timing of
16 message = messagePtr;
constructor function calls.
17
18 cout << "Object " << objectID << " constructor runs "
19 << message << endl;
20
21 } // end CreateAndDestroy constructor
22

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 61
23 // destructor
24 CreateAndDestroy::~CreateAndDestroy()
Outline
25 {
26 Output
// the following line is for pedagogic messageonly
purposes to
create.cpp (2 of 2)
27 cout << ( objectID == 1 || objectIDdemonstrate
== 6 ? "\n"timing
: "" of
);
28 destructor function calls.
29 cout << "Object " << objectID << " destructor runs "
30 << message << endl;
31
32 } // end ~CreateAndDestroy destructor

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 62
1 // Fig. 6.17: fig06_17.cpp
2 // Demonstrating the order in which constructors and
Outline
3 // destructors are called.
4 #include <iostream>
fig06_17.cpp
5
6 using std::cout;
(1 of 3)
7 using std::endl;
8
9 // include CreateAndDestroy class definition from create.h
10 #include "create.h"
11 Create variable with global
12 void create( void ); // prototype
scope.
13
14 // global object
15 CreateAndDestroy first( 1, "(global before main)" );
16
17 int main() Create local automatic object.
18 {
19 cout << "\nMAIN FUNCTION: EXECUTION BEGINS" << endl;
Create static local object.
20
21 CreateAndDestroy second( 2, "(local automatic in main)" );
22
23 static CreateAndDestroy third(
24 3, "(local static in main)" );
25

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 63
26 create(); // call function to create objects
27
Outline
28 cout << "\nMAIN FUNCTION: EXECUTION RESUMES" << endl;
29
Create local automatic fig06_17.cpp
30 CreateAndDestroy fourth( 4, "(local automatic in main)" );
31
objects. (2 of 3)
32 cout << "\nMAIN FUNCTION: EXECUTION ENDS" << endl;
33
34 return 0;
Create local automatic object.
35
36 } // end main
37
38 // function to create objects
39 void create( void )
Create local automatic object
40 {
41
in function.
cout << "\nCREATE FUNCTION: EXECUTION BEGINS" << endl;
42
Create static local object
43 CreateAndDestroy fifth( 5,in"(local
function.automatic in create)" );
44
45 Create local
static CreateAndDestroy sixth( automatic object
46 in function.
6, "(local static in create)" );
47
48 CreateAndDestroy seventh(
49 7, "(local automatic in create)" );
50

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 64
51 cout << "\nCREATE FUNCTION: EXECUTION ENDS\" << endl;
52
Outline
53 } // end function create

fig06_17.cpp
(3 of 3)

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 65
Object 1 constructor runs (global before main)
Outline
MAIN FUNCTION: EXECUTION BEGINS
Object 2 constructor runs (local automatic in main)
fig06_17.cpp
Object 3 constructor runs (local static in main)
output (1 of 1)
CREATE FUNCTION: EXECUTION BEGINS
Object 5 constructor runs (local automatic in create)
Object 6 constructor runs (local static in create)
Object 7 constructor runs (local automatic in create)
Local static
Destructors object exists
for local
CREATE FUNCTION: EXECUTION ENDS Global
until object
program
automatic constructed
in main
termination.
objects
Object 7 destructor runs (local automatic in create) Local main execution
beforeautomatic objects and
called in reverseobject
Local static order of
Object 5 destructor runs (local automatic in create) destroyed last. function
after
constructors.
constructed on first function
execution ends in reverse
MAIN FUNCTION: EXECUTION RESUMES call and destroyed after main
order of construction.
Object 4 constructor runs (local automatic in main) execution ends.

MAIN FUNCTION: EXECUTION ENDS

Object 4 destructor runs (local automatic in main)
Object 2 destructor runs (local automatic in main)
Object 6 destructor runs (local static in create)
Object 3 destructor runs (local static in main)

Object 1 destructor runs (global before main)

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 66

6.14 Using Set and Get Functions

• Set functions
– Perform validity checks before modifying private data
– Notify if invalid values
– Indicate with return values
• Get functions
– “Query” functions
– Control format of data returned

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 67
1 // Fig. 6.18: time3.h
2 // Declaration of class Time.
Outline
3 // Member functions defined in time3.cpp
4
time3.h (1 of 2)
5 // prevent multiple inclusions of header file
6 #ifndef TIME3_H
7 #define TIME3_H
8
9 class Time {
10
11 public:
12 Time( int = 0, int = 0, int = 0 ); // default constructor
13
Set functions.
14 // set functions
15 void setTime( int, int, int ); // set hour, minute, second
16 void setHour( int ); // set hour
17 void setMinute( int ); // set minute
18 void setSecond( int ); // set second
19 Get functions.
20 // get functions
21 int getHour(); // return hour
22 int getMinute(); // return minute
23 int getSecond(); // return second
24

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 68
25 void printUniversal(); // output universal-time format
26 void printStandard(); // output standard-time format
Outline
27
28 private:
time3.h (2 of 2)
29 int hour; // 0 - 23 (24-hour clock format)
30 int minute; // 0 - 59
31 int second; // 0 - 59
32
33 }; // end clas Time
34
35 #endif

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 69
1 // Fig. 6.19: time3.cpp
2 // Member-function definitions for Time class.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
time3.cpp (1 of 4)
5 using std::cout;
6
7 #include <iomanip>
8
9 using std::setfill;
10 using std::setw;
11
12 // include definition of class Time from time3.h
13 #include "time3.h"
14
15 // constructor function to initialize private data;
16 // calls member function setTime to set variables;
17 // default values are 0 (see class definition)
18 Time::Time( int hr, int min, int sec )
19 {
20 setTime( hr, min, sec );
21
22 } // end Time constructor
23

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 70
24 // set hour, minute and second values
25 void Time::setTime( int h, int m, int s )
Outline
26 {
27 setHour( h );
time3.cpp (2 of 4)
28 setMinute( m );
29 setSecond( s );
30 Call set functions to perform
31 } // end function setTime validity checking.
32
33 // set hour value
34 void Time::setHour( int h )
35 {
36 hour = ( h >= 0 && h < 24 ) ? h : 0;
37
38 } // end function setHour
39
Set functions perform validity
40 // set minute value
41 void Time::setMinute( int m )
checks before modifying data.
42 {
43 minute = ( m >= 0 && m < 60 ) ? m : 0;
44
45 } // end function setMinute
46

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 Set function performs validity 71
47 // set second value
48 void Time::setSecond( int s ) checks before modifying data. Outline
49 {
50 second = ( s >= 0 && s < 60 ) ? s : 0;
time3.cpp (3 of 4)
51
52 } // end function setSecond
53
54 // return hour value
55 int Time::getHour()
56 {
57 return hour;
58
59 } // end function getHour
Get functions allow client to
60
61 // return minute value
read data.
62 int Time::getMinute()
63 {
64 return minute;
65
66 } // end function getMinute
67

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 72
68 // return second value
69 int Time::getSecond()
Outline
70 {
71 return second;
time3.cpp (4 of 4)
72
73 } // end function getSecond Get function allows client to
74 read data.
75 // print Time in universal format
76 void Time::printUniversal()
77 {
78 cout << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << hour << ":"
79 << setw( 2 ) << minute << ":"
80 << setw( 2 ) << second;
81
82 } // end function printUniversal
83
84 // print Time in standard format
85 void Time::printStandard()
86 {
87 cout << ( ( hour == 0 || hour == 12 ) ? 12 : hour % 12 )
88 << ":" << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << minute
89 << ":" << setw( 2 ) << second
90 << ( hour < 12 ? " AM" : " PM" );
91
92 } // end function printStandard

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 73
1 // Fig. 6.20: fig06_20.cpp
2 // Demonstrating the Time class set and get functions
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig06_20.cpp
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
(1 of 3)
7
8 // include definition of class Time from time3.h
9 #include "time3.h"
10
11 void incrementMinutes( Time &, const int ); // prototype
12
13 int main()
Invoke set functions to set
14 {
valid values.
15 Time t; // create Time object
16
17 // set time using individual set functions
18 t.setHour( 17 ); // set hour to valid value
19 t.setMinute( 34 ); // set minute to valid value
20 t.setSecond( 25 ); // set second to valid value
21

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 74
22 // use get functions to obtain hour, minute and second
23 cout << "Result of setting all valid values:\n"
Outline
24 << " Hour: " << t.getHour()
25 << " Minute: " << t.getMinute() Attempt to set invalid values
26 << " Second: " << t.getSecond(); using set functions. fig06_20.cpp
27
(2 of 3)
28 // set time using individual set functions
29 t.setHour( 234 ); // invalid hour set to 0
30 t.setMinute( 43 ); // set minute to valid value
31 t.setSecond( 6373 ); // invalid second set to 0
Invalid values result in setting
32
data members to 0.
33 // display hour, minute and second after setting
34 // invalid hour and second values
35 cout << "\n\nResult of attempting to set invalid hour and"
36 << " second:\n Hour: " << t.getHour()
37 << " Minute: " << t.getMinute()
Modify data members using
38 << " Second: " << t.getSecond() << "\n\n";
function setTime.
39
40 t.setTime( 11, 58, 0 ); // set time
41 incrementMinutes( t, 3 ); // increment t's minute by 3
42
43 return 0;
44
45 } // end main
46

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 75
47 // add specified number of minutes to a Time object
48 void incrementMinutes( Time &tt, const int count )
Outline
49 {
50 cout << "Incrementing minute " << count
fig06_20.cpp
51 << " times:\nStart time: ";
Using get functions to 3)
(3 of read
52 tt.printStandard();
53
data and set functions to
54 for ( int i = 0; i < count; i++ ) { modify data.
55 tt.setMinute( ( tt.getMinute() + 1 ) % 60 );
56
57 if ( tt.getMinute() == 0 )
58 tt.setHour( ( tt.getHour() + 1 ) % 24);
59
60 cout << "\nminute + 1: ";
61 tt.printStandard();
62
63 } // end for
64
65 cout << endl;
66
67 } // end function incrementMinutes

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 76
Result of setting all valid values:
Hour: 17 Minute: 34 Second: 25
Outline

Result of attempting to set invalid hour and second:

fig06_20.cpp
Hour: 0 Minute: 43 Second: 0
output (1 of 1)
Incrementing minute 3 times:
Start time: 11:58:00 AM
minute + 1: 11:59:00 AM
Attempting to set data
minute + 1: 12:00:00 PM members with invalid values
minute + 1: 12:01:00 PM results in error message and
members set to 0.

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 77
6.15 Subtle Trap: Returning a Reference to
a private Data Member
• Reference to object
– Alias for name of object
– Lvalue
• Can receive value in assignment statement
– Changes original object
• Returning references
– public member functions can return non-const
references to private data members
• Client able to modify private data members

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 78
1 // Fig. 6.21: time4.h
2 // Declaration of class Time.
Outline
3 // Member functions defined in time4.cpp
4
time4.h (1 of 1)
5 // prevent multiple inclusions of header file
6 #ifndef TIME4_H
7 #define TIME4_H
8
9 class Time {
10
11 public:
12 Time( int = 0, int = 0, int = 0 );
13 void setTime( int, int, int );
Function to demonstrate
14 int getHour(); effects of returning reference
15 to private data member.
16 int &badSetHour( int ); // DANGEROUS reference return
17
18 private:
19 int hour;
20 int minute;
21 int second;
22
23 }; // end class Time
24
25 #endif

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 79
1 // Fig. 6.22: time4.cpp
2 // Member-function definitions for Time class.
Outline
3
4 // include definition of class Time from time4.h
time4.cpp (1 of 2)
5 #include "time4.h"
6
7 // constructor function to initialize private data;
8 // calls member function setTime to set variables;
9 // default values are 0 (see class definition)
10 Time::Time( int hr, int min, int sec )
11 {
12 setTime( hr, min, sec );
13
14 } // end Time constructor
15
16 // set values of hour, minute and second
17 void Time::setTime( int h, int m, int s )
18 {
19 hour = ( h >= 0 && h < 24 ) ? h : 0;
20 minute = ( m >= 0 && m < 60 ) ? m : 0;
21 second = ( s >= 0 && s < 60 ) ? s : 0;
22
23 } // end function setTime
24

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 80
25 // return hour value
26 int Time::getHour()
Outline
27 {
28 return hour;
time4.cpp (2 of 2)
29
30 } // end function getHour
31
32 // POOR PROGRAMMING PRACTICE:
33 // Returning a reference to a private data member.
34 int &Time::badSetHour( int hh ) Return reference to private
35 {
data member hour.
36 hour = ( hh >= 0 && hh < 24 ) ? hh : 0;
37
38 return hour; // DANGEROUS reference return
39
40 } // end function badSetHour

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 81
1 // Fig. 6.23: fig06_23.cpp
2 // Demonstrating a public member function that
Outline
3 // returns a reference to a private data member.
4 #include <iostream>
fig06_23.cpp
5
6 using std::cout;
(1 of 2)
7 using std::endl;
8
9 // include definition of class Time from time4.h
10 #include "time4.h"
11
12 int main()
13 {
14 Time t; badSetHour returns
15 reference to private data
16 // store in hourRef the reference returned by member hour.
badSetHour
17 int &hourRef = t.badSetHour( 20 );
18
19 Reference
cout << "Hour before modification: allows setting
" << hourRef; of
20 private data member
21 // use hourRef to set invalid value
hour.in Time object t
22 hourRef = 30;
23
24 cout << "\nHour after modification: " << t.getHour();
25

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 82
26 // Dangerous: Function call that returns
27 // a reference can be used as an lvalue!
Outline
28 t.badSetHour( 12 ) = 74;
29
fig06_23.cpp
30 cout << "\n\n*********************************\n"
31 << Can use function call as
"POOR PROGRAMMING PRACTICE!!!!!!!!\n"
(2 of 2)
32 << "badSetHour as an lvalue, lvalue
Hour: to
" set invalid value.
33 << t.getHour() fig06_23.cpp
34 << "\n*********************************" << endl; output (1 of 1)
35
36 return 0;
37
38 } // end main

Hour before modification: 20

Hour after modification: 30
Returning reference allowed
********************************* invalid setting of private
POOR PROGRAMMING PRACTICE!!!!!!!! data member hour.
badSetHour as an lvalue, Hour: 74
*********************************

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 83

6.16 Default Memberwise Assignment

• Assigning objects
– Assignment operator (=)
• Can assign one object to another of same type
• Default: memberwise assignment
– Each right member assigned individually to left member
• Passing, returning objects
– Objects passed as function arguments
– Objects returned from functions
– Default: pass-by-value
• Copy of object passed, returned
– Copy constructor
• Copy original values into new object

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 84
1 // Fig. 6.24: fig06_24.cpp
2 // Demonstrating that class objects can be assigned
Outline
3 // to each other using default memberwise assignment.
4 #include <iostream>
fig06_24.cpp
5
6 using std::cout;
(1 of 3)
7 using std::endl;
8
9 // class Date definition
10 class Date {
11
12 public:
13 Date( int = 1, int = 1, int = 1990 ); // default constructor
14 void print();
15
16 private:
17 int month;
18 int day;
19 int year;
20
21 }; // end class Date
22

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 85
23 // Date constructor with no range checking
24 Date::Date( int m, int d, int y )
Outline
25 {
26 month = m;
fig06_24.cpp
27 day = d;
28 year = y;
(2 of 3)
29
30 } // end Date constructor
31
32 // print Date in the format mm-dd-yyyy
33 void Date::print()
34 {
35 cout << month << '-' << day << '-' << year;
36
37 } // end function print
38
39 int main()
40 {
41 Date date1( 7, 4, 2002 );
42 Date date2; // date2 defaults to 1/1/1990
43

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 86
44 cout << "date1 = ";
45 date1.print();
Outline
46 cout << "\ndate2 = "; Default memberwise
47 date2.print(); assignment assigns each
fig06_24.cpp
48 member of date1
49 date2 = date1; // default memberwise assignment
(3 of 3)
individually to each member
50 of date2.
51 cout << "\n\nAfter default memberwise assignment, date2 = "; fig06_24.cpp
52 date2.print(); output (1 of 1)
53 cout << endl;
54
55 return 0;
56
57 } // end main

date1 = 7-4-2002
date2 = 1-1-1990

After default memberwise assignment, date2 = 7-4-2002

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
 87

6.17 Software Reusability

• Software reusability
– Class libraries
• Well-defined
• Carefully tested
• Well-documented
• Portable
• Widely available
– Speeds development of powerful, high-quality software
• Rapid applications development (RAD)
– Resulting problems
• Cataloging schemes
• Licensing schemes
• Protection mechanisms

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.