NEURON: STRUCTURAL UNIT

OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Neuro
n
Building blocks of the Nervous
System

Specialized for the reception,

conduction and transmission of
electrochemical signals

Specialized to transmit information

throughout the body
Is made up of the cell body or soma
and the processes namely: axon and
dendrite.

Center of the cell body is the nucleus.

Within the cell body are the different
cytoplasmic organelles such as:
mitochondria, ribosomes, golgi bodies
and other cytoplasmic organelles
 Major External features of a typical
Neuron
SOMA
Cell Membrane – semi permeable membrane that encloses
the neuron
Cell Body – metabolic center of the neuron ; also called soma
Dendrites – receive most of the synaptic contacts from other
neurons
Axon Hillock - cone-shaped region at the junction between
the axon and the cell body

Cell body

Cell membrane

Dendrites

Axon hillock
Axon – tubelike part of the neuron which carries
messages away.
Myelin – fatty insulation around many axons
Nodes of Ranvier – gaps between sections of
myelin

Axon
Buttons – button-like endings of the axons which
release chemicals into synapses
Synapse – small-fluid filled gaps between neurons
which chemical signals are being transmitted.

Buttons

Synapses
Synapses compose of 3 main parts:
presynaptic ending that contains
neurotransmitter
synaptic cleft between the nerve cell
postsynaptic ending that contains receptor
cell
 Protoplasmic extensions from the cell body

Dendrites conduct neural Axons conducts impulses

impulses to the body away from the body
CLASSIFICATION according to FUNCTION:

SENSORY NEURONS are also called

AFFERENT Neurons they are activated for
sensory experience.

MOTOR NEURONS are also called EFFERENT

Neurons these neurons are activated when
doing physical activities.

INTERNUNCIAL Neurons are those that

connect a sensory and motor neuron.
Internal features of a
Neuron
Internal features of a Neuron
Classes of Neurons (According to the
number of processes)

Multipolar neuron (motor neuron) – neuron

with more than two processes extending from its
cell body
Unipolar neuron (sensory neuron)– neuron with
one process extending from its cell body
Bipolar neuron - neuron with two process
extending from its cell body
Interneurons – neurons with short axon or no
axon at all
 MITOCHONDRIA

Mitochondria are well-defined cytoplasmic organelles of the cell

which take part in a variety of cellular metabolic functions.

Survival of the cells requires energy to perform different

functions.

The mitochondria are important as the fact that these organelles

supply all the necessary biological energy of the cell, and they
obtain this energy by oxidizing the substrates of the Krebs cycle.
Energy of the cell is got from the enzymatic oxidation of chemical
compounds in the mitochondria.
The mitochondria are referred to as the 'power
houses' of the cell. Almost all the eukaryotic cell have
mitochondria, though they are lost in the later stages
of development of cell like in the red blood cells or in
elements of phloem sieve tube.

In 1890, mitochondria was first described by

Richard Altmann and he called them as bioblasts.
Benda in the year 1897 coined the term
mitochondrion. In the 1920s, a biochemist Warburg
found that oxidative reactions takes place in most
tissues in small parts of the cell.
 RIBOSOMES

Ribosomes play an important biological role in the

task of protein synthesis.

Ribosomes essentially act as messengers to receive

and transmit critical information. Without them, cell
messages would not be read and reproduction of
proteins would not take place.
 NEUROANATOMICAL TECHNIQUE

Golgi Stain
 Camillo Golgi (Italian Physician in the early 1870)
 Trying to stain the meninges by exposing a block of neural
tissue to potassium dichromate and silver nitrate
 This discovery made it possible to see individual neurons
for the first time.
 GOLGI BODIES

The Golgi body is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.

Also referred to as the Golgi apparatus or the Golgi complex, it's
part of the cell's endomembrane system.

The Golgi body has a number of functions, including sorting

and processing proteins. Proteins are synthesized in the rough
endoplasmic reticulum, then they travel to the Golgi body.
While in the Golgi body, they are processed and sent
throughout the cell. The Golgi body is also responsible for
determining which proteins are to be transported outside the
cell.
 Golgi Body

Scientists had discovered the Golgi body long before

they knew what it does. Since it is fairly large
compared to other cellular components, its size led it
to discovered long before its function was known.

Its role was only determined in the 20th century

when microscope technology became more
advanced, helping researchers understand that it was
present in both animal and plant cells.
Two structures found only in the cytoplasm of
the neuron or nerve cell. These structures are the
nissl granules or tigroid bodies and the
neurofibrils.

The nissl granules or also called chromatophil

substances, are deeply staining granules found in
the cytoplasm of the cell body and dendrites but
are absent in the axon and axon hillock or what is
called the implantation cone
 NISSL GRANULES

A Nissl body, also known as Nissl substance, is a

large granular body found in neurons. These
granules are of rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER) with rosettes of free ribosomes, and are the
site of protein synthesis.

It was named after Franz Nissl, a German

neuropathologist who invented the Nissl staining
method. Comes up with using cresyl violet for
dyeing
The cone shape structure from which the axon
arises.

Don’t you know that when a neuron is damaged or

injured, these chromatophil substances are affected
and undergo dissolution as a reaction to the
neuronal injury. This process is called
CHROMATOLYSIS.

Neurofibrils are the threadlike structures that cross

and overlap each other in the soma or cell body but
they run straight and parallel each other in the
axon.
 NEUROFIBRILS

A neurofibril is a fibril found in the cytoplasm of a

neuron and is only visible by light microscopy. Its
function is to give support and shape the nerve cell.
In the cell body, there are also golgi bodies. These
cytoplasmic structures are responsible for the
packaging of neurotransmitter molecules into the
synaptic vesicles.

Neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers

that play a significant role in one’s behavior.
Neurons come in many shapes and sizes which are
stellate, or globular or flask shaped
Some have cell bodies as large as 50 micrometers
( one twentieth of a millimeter) and some are small
as 10 micrometers ( one hundredth of a millimeter)

The glial cells are found in the central nervous

system whereas satellite cells are found in the
peripheral nervous system.

Glial cells act as the supportive framework of the

neurons. There are approximately 10 times more
glial cells than neurons in the CNS.
 The following are GLIAL CELLS:

which may be fibrous or protoplasmic astrocytes,

oligodendrocytes or oligodendroglia and microglia.

The astrocytes are abundant in white matter

Protoplasmic astrocytes are abundant in gray matter.
Astrocytes aside from support are also involved in
cell metabolism and play a role in the reuptake
process of neurotransmitter molecules into the
synaptic vesicles of the presynaptic neuron.

Oligodendrocytes also called oligidendroglia are

responsible for the formation and preservation of
the myelin sheath that surrounds the axons found
within the brain and spinal cord, structures that
are within the CNS.
Microglia cells are also called mesoglia because
they are believed to have come from the germ layer
mesoderm. Microglia is endowed with phagocytic
function to eliminate neuronal debris or waste.
GLIAL CELLS

The myelin sheath which

formed the
oligodendrocytes and
schwann cells in the CNS
and PNS respectively

The myelin sheath is a

white fatty substance that
covers a nerve fiber.
AGGREGATIONS OF NEURONS FOUND IN THE PNS

Ganglia (singular: ganglion)

The autonomic nervous system has a chain of sympathetic

and parasympathetic ganglia.
There is also a spiral ganglion which is the first neuron in
the auditory pathway.

Another is the dorsal root ganglion which is the first

neuron in the pathway for somatic sensation such as:
touch, pressure, cold and warm sensations as well as
awareness of position and movement
CNS Structures in Macroscopic Perspective
 DIVISIONS OF THE BRAIN
MAJOR DIVISIONS Subdivisions
Prosencephalon Telencephalon
(Forebrain) Diencephalon

Mesencephalon Mesencephalon
(Midbrain)

Rhombencephalon Metencephalon
(Hindrain) Myelencephalon
 FOREBRAIN (PROSENCEPHALON)

Responsible for a variety of functions including

receiving and processing sensory information,
thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding
language and controlling motor function.
 MIDBRAIN (MESENCEPHALON)

Acts most notably as the information superhighway

connecting these two regions. It enables your brain
to integrate sensory information from your eyes and
ears with your muscle movements, thereby enabling
your body to use this information to make fine
adjustments to your movement.
 HINDBRAIN (RHOMBENCEPHALON)

Governs the autonomic, or “automated” body

systems, controlling everything from breathing,
heart rate, sleep patterns to bladder function, sense
of equilibrium and fine motor control. Basically, the
hindbrain controls all the things that you want to
automatically work without having to think about
them.
 TELENCEPHALON (FOREBRAIN)

The word telencephalon comes from two Greek

roots: telos meaning ‘end,’ and enkephalos meaning
brain. Telencephalon literally means ‘endbrain’- and
in two ways, first the telencephalon is the last
subdivision of the brain to develop in the human
embryo. Second, the telencephalon was the last part
of the brain to evolve in humans.
Human voluntary movement, interpreting, sensory
input and negotiates complex cognitive processes
which includes: learning, speaking and problem
solving.
 Telencephalon (CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES)

FUNCTIONS:
Determines intelligence
Determines personality
Interpretation of sensory impulses
Motor function
Planning and organization
Sense of smell
Touch sensation
 location

The telencephalon is the anterior portion of the

brain, rostal of the midbrain

STRUCTURES:
The telencephalon consists of: the cerebral cortex,
basal ganglia, corpus striatum and olfactory bulb
 A. CEREBRUM

Seat of reason, planning, memory and sensory

integration.
Conscious thought originates here and can influence
the subconscious function of the lower regions of the
brain.
Perception, imagination, thought, judgment and
decision occur
LAYERS OF
THE
CEREBRUM
Gray matter
Thick outermost layer;
known as the cerebral cortex
Contains the center for
cognition and personality
and the coordination of
complicated movements.
White matter
Network of fibers that
enables regions of the brain
to communicated with each
other.
Basal and the Limbic system:
internal islands of gray
matter
 LANDMARKS

Two major landmarks on the lateral surface of each

hemisphere are: Central fissure and Lateral fissure
These fissures partially divide each hemisphere into
four lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital
 FRONTAL LOBE

2 DISTINCT FUNCTIONAL AREAS: Precentral

Gyrus and Adjacent Frontal Cortex

Frontal cortex performs complex cognitive functions

(planning response sequences, evaluating the
outcomes of potential patterns of behavior of others.
 PARIETAL LOBE

Two large function areas: Post Central gyrus

analyzes sensation from the body (e.g. Touch)

Posterior parts of the parietal lobe play roles in

perceiving the location of both objects and our
bodies and directing one’s attention.
 TEMPORAL LOBE

3 General Functions:
Superior temporal gyrus –hearing and language
Inferior temporal cortex- identifies complex
visual patterns.
Medial portion of the temporal cortex-
important for certain kinds of memory.
 OCCIPITAL LOBE

Visual input to guide one’s behavior and the occipital

cortex and large areas adjacent cortex perform this
function.
 B. LIMBIC SYSTEM

Control of emotion, motivation and emotional

association with memory
It is involved in many of our emotions and
motivations, particularly those that are related to
survival.
Emotions include fear, anger, and emotions related
to sexual behavior.
Also involved in feelings of pleasure that are related
to our survival such as those experienced from eating
and sex.
Amygdala- almond shaped mass of nuclei involved in
emotional responses, hormonal secretions and
memory
-responsible for preparing the body for emergency
situations such as storing memories of events for
future recognition.

Hippocampus – a tiny nub that acts as a memory

indexer—sending memories out to the appropriate part
of the cerebral hemisphere for long-term storing and
retrieving them when necessary.
- Converting short term memories to long term
memories
 LIMBIC SYSTEM

Cingulate cortex- a fold in the brain involved with

sensory input concerning emotions and the
regulation of aggressive behavior.
 Involved in emotional, cognitive and motor tasks.
 Fornix- an arching fibrous band of nerve fibers that
connect the hippocampus to the hypothalamus
 Septum- a thin, triangular, vertical membrane that
separates the lateral ventricles of the brain.
The limbic system is concerned with basic autonomic
and visceral responses associated with feeding
behavior; control of aggression, emotion and sexual
arousal and memory (Gertz, 2007)

Other structures of the limbic system are the

amygdala which aside from controlling our fear
responses is also involved in emotional memories.
Hippocampus, a seahorse –like structure in the
medial view of the temporal lobe. It is involved in the
consolidation of the short-term memory (STM) to
long-term memory
 C. BASAL GANGLIA

1. Amygdala- fear emotion

2. Striatum-
Caudate nucleus- sends its messages to the frontal lobe and
appears to be responsible for informing us that
something is not right and we should do something
about it.
Putamen- involved in coordinating automatic behaviors
3. Globus Pallidus- located inside the putamen, with an
outer part and an inner part. It receives inputs from the
caudate and putamen and provides outputs to the
substantia nigra.
 D. BRAINSTEM

Responsible for basic vital life functions such as:

breathing, heartbeat and blood pressure.
Stem on which the cerebral hemispheres sit
Attaches on the spinal cord
Regulation of heart rate, breathing, sleeping and
eating.
 DIENCEPHALON

FUNCTIONS:
Directing sense impulses throughout the body
Autonomic function control
Endocrine Function control
Motor function control
Homeostasis
Hearing, vision, smell, taste and touch
 LOCATION

Directionally the diencephalon is situated between

the cerebral hemispheres, superior to the midbrain

STRUCTURES:
The diencephalon consists of the hypothalamus,
thalamus and epithalamus (including the pineal
gland), and subthalamus
 DIENCEPHALON

A. Thalamus
-a large, dual lobed mass of gray matter cells that relay
sensory signals to and from the spinal cord and
cerebrum
-’traffic cop’ that directs information
- Involved in a number of functions including relaying
sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex and
regulating consciousness, sleep and alertness.
 B. HYPOTHALAMUS

About the size of a pearl, this structure directs a

multitude of important functions. It wakes you up in
the morning, and gets the adrenaline flowing. It is
also an important emotional center, controlling the
molecules that make you feel exhilarated, angry or
unhappy.
Controls motivated behavior by regulating the
release of hormones from the pituitary gland.
 C. EPITHALAMUS

Functions as a connection between the limbic system

to the other parts of the brain
 MESENCEPHALON (MIDBRAIN)

Controlling responses to sight, eye movement, pupil

dilation, body movement
A. Tectum: two divisions:
Superior colliculi- part of the visual system
Inferior colliculi- part of the auditory system

B. Tegmentum- is the division of the mesencephalon

ventral to the tectum
 METENCEPHALON

FUNCTIONS:
Arousal
Balance
Cardiac Reflexes
Circulation
Fine Muscle Movement
Sleep
LOCATION
The metencephalon is located below the posterior
portion of the cerebrum and above the medulla
oblongata.

STRUCTURES: the metencephalon is the division of

the hindbrain that consists of the pons and cerebellum
 METENCEPHALON (Hindbrain)

Arousal, balance, cardiac reflexes, circulation, fine

muscle movement, muscle tone maintenance and
sleep.
A. Pons – serves a message station between several
areas of the brain. It helps relay messages from the
cortex and cerebellum.
CEREBELLUM
 CEREBELLUM

Means ‘little brain’

Area of the hindbrain that controls motor
movement, coordination, balance, equilibrium and
muscle tone.
It contains over 50% of the total number of neurons
in the brain.
 Cerebellum has three lobes:

FLOCCULO-NODULAR LOBE which is concerned

with balance and equilibrium.

ANTERIOR LOBE which is concerned with the

regulation of muscle tonus

POSTERIOR LOBE concerned with the coordination

of somatic activities or body movements
An individual who has cerebellar damage ,may
develop dysmetria, the failure to judge distance or the
range of movement.

The cerebellum has two layers: cerebellar cortex and

corpus medullary substance

CEREBELLAR CORTEX is the gray matter that forms

the outer layer whereas the medullary substance is the
white matter which forms the inner layer
 Reticular formation

Reticular activating system plays a role in

awake/sleep cycles and consciousness.
Consists of more than 100 small neural networks
with varied functions including: motor control,
cardiovascular control, pain modulation, sleep and
habituation.
Mediates the overall level of consciousness
MEDULLA (MYELENCEPHALON)
 MYELENCEPHALON

FUNCTIONS:
Autonomic Functions
Breathing
Conduction Pathway for nerve tracts
Digestion
Heart Rate
Swallowing
Sneezing
LOCATION
The most important inferior portion of the brainstem

STRUCTURES
Medulla oblongata
 medulla

The medulla is easily the most important part of the

brain. It's functions are involuntary, or done without
thought. We would not be able to live without the
medulla because of the myriad of crucial tasks it
performs including regulating blood pressure
and breathing. As a part of the brain stem, it also
helps transfer neural messages from the brain to the
spinal cord.
The respiratory and cardiac centers are also situated
in the medulla.

Fun Fact

During brain surgery, a surgeon has to be

extremely cautious, or careful not to damage any part
of the medulla. Although damage to other parts of the
brain can be dealt with accordingly, damage to the
medulla is the hardest to fix because of the many
important functions that it carries out.
 Brain conditions

Headache
Stroke (brain infarction): Blood flow and oxygen are suddenly
interrupted to an area of the brain tissue, which then dies. A
blood clot, or bleeding in the brain are the cause of most
strokes
Brain aneurysm: An artery in the brain develops a weak area
that swells, balloon like. A brain aneurysm rupture can cause
a stroke.
Subdural hematoma: Bleeding within the or under the dura,
the lining inside of the skull. A subdural hematoma may exert
pressure on the brain, causing neurobiological problems.
 BRAIN CONDITIONS…

Epidural hematoma: Bleeding between the tough tissue

(dura) lining in the inside of the skull and the skull itself,
usually shortly after a head injury. Initial mild symptoms
can progress rapidly to unconsciousness and death, if
untreated.
Intracerebral hemorrhage: Any bleeding inside the brain
Concussion
Cerebral edema
Brain tumor
Glioblastoma
Hydrocephalus
Normal pressure hydrocephalus
Meningitis
Encephalitis
Traumatic brain injury
Parkinson’s disease
Huntington’s disease
Epilepsy
Dementia
Alzheimer’s disease
Brain abscess
 SPINAL CORD

The spinal cord is the most

important structure between the body and the
brain. The spinal cord extends from the foramen
magnum where it is continuous with the medulla to
the level of the first or second lumbar vertebrae. It is
a vital link between the brain and the body, and from
the body to the brain.
The major column of nerve tissue that is connected to
the brain and lies within the vertebral canal and from
which the spinal nerves emerge.

The spinal cord consists of nerve fibers that transmit

impulses to and from the brain. Like the brain, the
spinal cord is covered by three connective tissues
envelopes the meninges.
 BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD

The brain and spinal cord work together. The spinal

cord is the link between brain and the nerves in the
rest of our body. When we move, messages travel
from the brain down the spinal cord. Messages also
are carried up the spinal cord to allow the person to
feel sensations.
 THE SPINAL CORDS…

1. Helps us move

2. Allows us to feel hot and cold temperature,

vibration, sharp and dull sensations and the sense
position of the arms and legs

3. Helps in controlling blood pressure, heart rate, and

the temperature of the body.
 SPINAL CORD TRACTS

Ascending Tract
 Carry sensory information from the body upwards to
the brain such as: touch, skin temperature, pain and
joint position.
 Found in all columns

 Descending Tract
 Carry information from the brain downwards to
initiate movement and control body functions
 Found only in the lateral and the ventral columns
 Spinal cord is covered with meninges

Specialized membranes that covers, protect,

provides physical stability and shock absorption to
the brain and spinal cord.
 SPINAL NERVES

Also known as the “nerve root” which branch off the

spinal cord and pass out through a hole in each of the
vertebrae called the foramen.
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves that branch off spinal
cord
Each spinal nerves has 2 roots: ventral root- carries
motor impulses from the brain to the body; dorsal root-
carries sensory impulses to the brain.
These nerves carry information from the spinal cord to
the rest of the body and from the body back up to the
brain.
Thirty one pairs of spinal nerves originate in the spinal cord:

8 cervical “C”: (nerves in the neck) supply movement and

feeling to the arms, neck and upper truck. It also controls
breathing.
12 Thoracic Nerves “T” (nerves in the upper back) supply
movements and feeling at the trunk and abdomen
5 lumbar Nerves “L” and
5 sacral nerves “S” (nerves in the lower back) supply actions and
feeling to the legs, bladder and sexual organs.
1 coccygeal

The spinal cord and the brain constitute the central nervous
system
 FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVES

Cervical Nerve C1-C4 Breathing

C2- head and neck movement
C4-C6 heart rate
C5- shoulder movement
C6-C7 Wrist and elbow movement
C7-C11 Hand and finger movement
T1-T12 temperature regulations and trunk stability
T11-L12 Ejaculation
L2 Hip motion
L3 Knee extension
L4-S1 Foot motion
L5- Knee Flexion
S4-S5 Penile erection
S2-S3 Bowel and bladdery
 CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

Ventricle is a cavity in the brain that contains the

cerebrospinal fluid
CSF- Is a clear fluid that fills the entire subarachnoid
space and in adults is about 130 to 150 ml. The CSF
part of the protective mechanisms of the brain and
spinal cord which also include the cranium and
vertebral column respectively, the meninges which
serve as coverings of the two neural structures of the
CNS.
 CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

Clear, colorless liquid that fills and surrounds the brain and
spinal cord and provides a mechanical barrier against shock.
Formed primarily in the ventricles of the brain, the CSF
supports the brain and provides lubrication between
surrounding bones and the brain and spinal cord.

The fluid helps to maintain pressure within the cranium at a

constant level.

Also transports metabolic waste products, antibodies,

chemicals and pathological products of disease away from the
brain and spinal cord tissue into the bloodstream.
CSF is slightly alkaline and is about 99 percent
water.

If production exceeds absorption, CSF pressure

rises, and result is hydrocephalus. This can also
occur if the CSF pathways are obstructed, causing
the fluid to accumulate.
 THREE MENINGES THAT PROTECT THE BRAIN

Outermost layer is the dura mater a tough membrane

which adheres to the inner surface of the sull

The intermediate covering just under the dura mater is

the arachnoid. The space below the arachnoid is the
subarachnoid space which earlier is said to contain the
CSF.

The innermost layer is the pia mater which is the

capillary-rich and closely attached to the brain following
its contours and convolutions.
This area of the gray matter, when damaged , may
lead to agnosia or apraxia.

AGNOSIA is the failure of the individual to recognize

objects in the absence of sensory deficits or
impairment.

APRAXIA is the failure of the individual to

demonstrate a learned act or behavior upon command
or request in the absence of paralysis.
The angular gyrus if damaged, may lead to alexia and
agraphia.

ALEXIA is the loss of the ability to read though the individual

sees the printed words. This condition is also known as the
word blindness or visual aphasia.

This is different from dyslexia which is difficulty in reading,

Agraphia is the inability to write whereas dysgraphia is the

difficulty in writing.

Remember prefix “a” means without while “dys” means

“difficulty” .
 Types of spinal cord injury

Complete Spinal Cord Injury

Complete spinal cord injuries result in
complete paraplegia or complete tetraplegia
 COMPLETE SPINAL CORD INJURY

Complete paraplegia is described as permanent loss

of motor and nerve function at T1 level or below,
resulting in loss of sensation and movement in the
legs, bowel, bladder and sexual region. Arms and
hands retain normal function.
Some people with complete paraplegia have partial
trunk movement, allowing them to stand and walk
short distances with assistive equipment.

Complete tetraplegia is characterized by the loss of

hand and arm movement as well. Some tetraplegics
require ventilator systems in order to breathe.
Depending upon the location of the injury, some
tetraplegics may have some arm and hand movement
present.
 Incomplete spinal cord injury

Can result in some feeling but little or no movement,

or in some movement but little or no feeling.
Incomplete spinal injuries fall under five different
classifications:
 Anterior Cord Syndrome: Characterized by damage
to the front of the spinal cord, resulting in impaired
temperature, touch and pain sensations below the
point of injury. Some movement can later be
recovered.
 CLASSIFICATIONS:

Central Cord Syndrome: Characterized by damage in the

center of the spinal cord that results in the loss of function
in the arms but some leg movement. Some recovery in
possible.
Posterior Cord Syndrome: Characterized by damage to the
back of the spinal cord, resulting in good muscle power,
pain and temperature sensation but poor coordination.
Brown Sequard Syndrome: Characterized by damage to
one side of the spinal cord, resulting in impaired loss of
movement but preserved movement and loss of sensation
on the other side of the body.
 INCOMPLETE SPINAL CORD INJURY

Cauda Equina Lesion: Characterized by injury to the

nerves located between the first and second lumbar
region of the spine, resulting in partial or complete
loss of sensation. In some cases, nerves regrow and
function is recovered.