The Human Body:

Anatomy and Physiology

Part A
1

1
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

 Anatomy – the study of the structure of body parts

and their relationships to one another
 Gross or macroscopic

 Microscopic

 Developmental

 Physiology – the study of the function of the body’s

structural machinery
2
 Anatomy: Gross

 Regional – all structures in one part of the body

(such as the abdomen or leg)
 Systemic – gross anatomy of the body studied by
system
 Surface – study of internal structures as they relate
to the overlying skin

3
 Anatomy: Microscopic

 Cytology – study of the cell

 Histology – study of tissues

4
 Anatomy: Developmental

 Traces structural changes throughout life

 Embryology – study of developmental changes of

the body before birth

5
 Anatomy: Specialized Branches of Anatomy

 Pathological anatomy – study of structural changes

caused by disease
 Radiographic anatomy – study of internal structures
visualized by X ray
 Molecular biology – study of anatomical structures
at a subcellular level

6
 Physiology

 Considers the operation of specific organ systems

 Renal – kidney function

 Neurophysiology – workings of the nervous system

 Cardiovascular – operation of the heart and blood

vessels

 Focuses on the functions of the body, often at the

cellular or molecular level
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 Physiology

 Understanding physiology also requires a

knowledge of physics, which explains electrical
currents, blood pressure, and the way muscle uses
bone for movement

8
 Principle of Complementarity

 Function always reflects structure

 What a structure can do depends on its specific form

 For example: Thumb

9
 Levels of Structural Organization

 Chemical – atoms combined to form molecules

 Cellular – cells are made of molecules

 Tissue – consists of similar types of cells

 Organ – made up of different types of tissues

 Organ system – consists of different organs that

work closely together
 Organismal – made up of the organ systems
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Levels of Structural Organization

Smooth muscle cell

Molecules
2 Cellular level
Cells are made up of molecules Atoms

1 Chemical level
Atoms combine to
Smooth form molecules
muscle
tissue
Heart
3 Tissue level
Cardiovascular
Tissues consist of
system Blood
similar types of
cells vessels
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth Blood
muscle vessel
tissue (organ)
6 Organismal level
Connective The human organism is
tissue made up of many organ
systems
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of 5 Organ system level
different types of tissues Organ systems consist of different organs
that work together closely 11
Figure 1.1
 Organ Systems of the Body

 Integumentary system
 Forms the external body covering

 Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands,

hair, and nails
 Protects deep tissues from injury and synthesizes
vitamin D

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 Organ Systems of the Body

 Skeletal system
 Composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments

 Protects and supports body organs

 Provides the framework for muscles

 Site of blood cell formation

 Stores minerals

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 Organ Systems of the Body

 Muscular system
 Composed of muscles and tendons

 Allows manipulation of the environment,

locomotion, and facial expression
 Maintains posture

 Produces heat

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 Organ Systems of the Body

 Nervous system
 Composed of the brain, spinal column, and nerves

 Is the fast-acting control system of the body

 Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and

glands

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 Organ Systems of the Body

 Cardiovascular system
 Composed of the heart and blood vessels

 The heart pumps blood

 The blood vessels transport blood throughout the

body

16
 Organ Systems of the Body

 Lymphatic system
 Composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen,
lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels
 Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and
returns it to blood
 Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream

 Houses white blood cells involved with immunity

17
 Organ Systems of the Body

 Respiratory system
 Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea,
bronchi, and lungs
 Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes
carbon dioxide

18
 Organ Systems of the Body

 Digestive system
 Composed of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, and
liver
 Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter
the blood
 Eliminates indigestible foodstuffs as feces

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 Organ Systems of the Body

 Urinary system
 Composed of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra
 Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body

 Regulates water, electrolyte, and pH balance of the

blood

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 Organ Systems of the Body

 Male reproductive system

 Composed of prostate gland, penis, testes, scrotum,
and ductus deferens
 Main function is the production of offspring

 Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones

 Ducts and glands deliver sperm to the female

reproductive tract

21
 Organ Systems of the Body

 Female reproductive system

 Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine
tubes, uterus, and vagina
 Main function is the production of offspring

 Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones

 Remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization

and development of the fetus
 Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the
newborn 22
 Organ Systems Interrelationships

 The integumentary system protects the body from

the external environment

 Digestive and respiratory systems, in contact with

the external environment, take in nutrients and
oxygen

23
 Organ Systems Interrelationships

 Nutrients and oxygen

are distributed by the
blood

 Metabolic wastes are

eliminated by the
urinary and respiratory
systems
24
Figure 1.2
 Necessary Life Functions I

 Maintaining boundaries – the internal environment remains distinct

from the external
 Cellular level – accomplished by plasma membranes
 Organismal level – accomplished by the skin

 Movement – locomotion, propulsion (peristalsis), and contractility

 Responsiveness – ability to sense changes in the environment and
respond to them
 Digestion – breakdown of ingested foodstuffs

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 Necessary Life Functions II

 Metabolism – all the chemical reactions that occur in the body

 increased rate of breathing as a result of an increased buildup of carbon
dioxide in the bloodstream
 Excretion – removal of wastes from the body
 Reproduction – cellular and organismal levels
 Cellular – an original cell divides and produces two identical daughter
cells
 Organismal – sperm and egg unite to make a whole new person

 Growth – increase in size of a body part or of the organism

26
 Survival Needs

 Nutrients – chemical substances used for energy and

cell building
 Oxygen – needed for metabolic reactions
 Water – provides the necessary environment for
chemical reactions
 Maintaining normal body temperature – necessary
for chemical reactions to occur at life-sustaining
rates
 Atmospheric pressure – required for proper
breathing and gas exchange in the lungs
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The Human Body:
Homeostasis
Part B
1

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 Homeostasis

 Homeostasis is the ability to maintain a relatively

stable internal environment in an ever-changing
outside world

 The internal environment of the body is in a

dynamic state of equilibrium

 Chemical, thermal, and neural factors interact to

maintain homeostasis
29
 Homeostasis: Control Mechanisms
 The variable produces a change in the body

 The three interdependent components of control

mechanisms are:
 Receptor – monitors the environments and responds
to changes (stimuli)
 Control center – determines the set point at which
the variable is maintained
 Effector – provides the means to respond to the
stimulus 30
 Homeostasis: Control Mechanisms
3 Input: Control
center 4 Output:
Information Information sent
sent along along efferent
afferent pathway to
pathway to

Receptor (sensor) Effector

2 Change
detected
by receptor

5 Response of
effector feeds
back to influence
1 Stimulus: magnitude of
Produces Imb stimulus and
ala
change nce returns
in variable variable to
homeostasis
Variable (in homeostasis)
Imb
ala
nce
31
Figure 1.4
 Homeostasis: Negative Feedback

 In negative feedback systems, the output shuts off

the original stimulus
 prevents sudden and severe changes within the body.

 Example: Regulation of blood glucose levels

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Homeostasis: Negative Feedback

33
Figure 1.5
 Homeostasis: Positive Feedback

 In positive feedback
systems, the output
enhances or exaggerates
the original stimulus

 Example: Regulation of
blood clotting
 Example: Enhancement of
labor contractions by
oxytocin.
34
Figure 1.6
 Homeostasis: Imbalance

 Disturbance of homeostasis or the body’s normal

equilibrium

 Overwhelming of negative feedback mechanisms

allowing destructive positive feedback mechanisms
to take over

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 The Human Body:
Language of Anatomy
Part C
1

36
 Anatomical Position

 Body erect, feet slightly

apart, palms facing
forward, thumbs point
away from body

37
Figure 1.7a
 Directional Terms

 Superior and inferior – toward and away from the

head, respectively

 Anterior and posterior – toward the front and back

of the body

 Medial, lateral, and intermediate – toward the

midline, away from the midline, and between a more
medial and lateral structure
38
 Directional Terms

 Proximal and distal – closer to and farther from the

origin of the body

 Superficial and deep – toward and away from the

body surface

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Directional Terms

40
Table 1.1
Directional Terms

41
Table 1.1
 Regional Terms: Anterior View

 Axial – head,
neck, and trunk
 Appendicular –
appendages or
limbs
 Specific
regional
terminology
42
Figure 1.7a
Regional Terms: Posterior View

43 1.7b
Figure
 Body Planes

 Sagittal – divides the body

into right and left parts
 Midsagittal or medial –
sagittal plane that lies on
the midline
 Frontal or coronal – divides
the body into anterior and
posterior parts

44
 Body Planes

 Transverse or horizontal
(cross section) – divides the
body into superior and
inferior parts
 Oblique section – cuts
made diagonally

45
Body Planes

46
Figure 1.8
 Anatomical Variability

 Humans vary slightly in both external and internal anatomy

 Over 90% of all anatomical structures match textbook

descriptions, but:
 Nerves or blood vessels may be somewhat out of place

 Small muscles may be missing

 Extreme anatomical variations are seldom seen

47
 Body Cavities
 Dorsal cavity protects the nervous system, and is
divided into two subdivisions
 Cranial cavity is within the skull and encases the
brain
 Vertebral cavity runs within the vertebral column
and encases the spinal cord

 Ventral cavity houses the internal organs (viscera),

and is divided into two subdivisions: thoracic and
abdominopelvic 48
Body Planes

49
Figure 1.9a
Body Planes

50
Figure 1.9b
 Body Cavities

 Thoracic cavity is subdivided into pleural cavities,

the mediastinum, and the pericardial cavity
 Pleural cavities – each houses a lung

 Mediastinum – contains the pericardial cavity, and

surrounds the remaining thoracic organs
 Pericardial cavity – encloses the heart

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 Body Cavities

 The abdominopelvic cavity is separated from the

superior thoracic cavity by the dome-shaped
diaphragm

 It is composed of two subdivisions

 Abdominal cavity – contains the stomach,
intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs
 Pelvic cavity – lies within the pelvis and contains
the bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
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 Hernia

 Hernia is occurs when an

organ protrudes or invades
another body cavity.

 For example: Inguinal

Hernia
 For example: Pregnancy

53
 Ventral Body Cavity Membranes

 Parietal serosa lines internal body walls

 Visceral serosa covers the internal organs

 Serous fluid separates the serosae

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Ventral Body Cavity Membranes

55
Figure 1.10a
Ventral Body Cavity Membranes

56
Figure 1.10b
 Other Body Cavities

 Oral and digestive – mouth and cavities of the

digestive organs
 Nasal –located within and posterior to the nose

 Orbital – house the eyes

 Middle ear – contain bones (ossicles) that transmit

sound vibrations
 Synovial – joint cavities
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 Abdominopelvic Retions

 Umbilical

 Epigastric

 Hypogastric

 Right and left iliac or

inguinal
 Right and left lumbar

 Right and left

hypochondriac
58
Figure 1.11a
Organs of the Abdominopelvic Regions

59
Figure 1.11b
 Abdominopelvic Quadrants

 Right upper

 Left upper

 Right lower

 Left lower

60 1.12
Figure