Discrete

Mathematics

Chapter 7
Advanced Counting Techniques

大葉大學 資訊工程系 黃鈴玲

 7.1 Recurrence Relations( 遞迴關
係)
Example 1. Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies
the recurrence relation an=an1an2 for n=2,3,…, and
suppose that a0=3,and a1=5.
Here a0=3 and a1=5 are the initial conditions.
By the recurrence relation,
a2 = a1a0 = 2
a3 = a2a1 = 3
a4 = a3a2 = 5
:
Q1: Applications ?
Q2: Are there better ways for computing the terms of
{an}? Ch7-2
 ※Modeling with Recurrence Relations
We can use recurrence relations to model (describe) a
wide variety of problems.
Example 3. Compound Interest ( 複利 )
Suppose that a person deposits( 存款 ) $10000 in
a saving account at a bank yielding 11% per year with
interest compounded annually.
How much will be in the account after 30 years ?
Sol : Let Pn denote the amount in the account
after n years.
Pn=Pn1 + 0.11Pn1=1.11  Pn1, P0=10000
∴ P30=1.11  P29=(1.11)2  P28=…=(1.11)30  P0
=228922.97 Ch7-3
Example 5. (The Tower of Hanoi)
The rules of the puzzle allow disks to be moved one at a time
from one peg to another as long as a disk is never placed on top
of a smaller disk. Let Hn denote the number of moves needed to
solve the Tower of Hanoi problem with n disks.
Set up a recurrence relation for the sequence {Hn}.
目標 : n 個 disk 都從 peg 1 移到
peg 2

H4 moves

peg 1 peg 2 peg 3

Sol : Hn=2Hn-1+1,
H1=1
( n1 個 disk 先從 peg 1→peg 3, 第 n 個 disk 從 peg
1→peg 2,
n1 個 disk 再從 peg 3→peg 2) Ch7-4
上例中 Hn=2Hn1+1, H1=1
∴Hn=2Hn1+1
=2(2Hn2+1)+1
=22Hn2+2+1
=22(2Hn3+1)+2+1
=23Hn3+(22+2+1)
:
=2n1H1+(2n2+2n3+…+1)
=2n1+2n2+…+1
2n  1
= 2  1 =2n1
Ch7-5
Example 6. Find a recurrence relation and give initial conditions for
the number of bit strings of length n that do not have two
consecutive 0s.
How many such bit strings are there of length 5 ?
Sol :

Let an be the number of bit strings of length n that

do not have two consecutive 0s.
1 2 … n-3 n-2 n-1 n

an-1 種 1 ∴ an = an1+an2, n  3
a1=2 (string : 0,1)
an-2 種 1 0 a2=3 (string : 01,10,11)

∴ a3=a2+a1=5, a4=8, a5=13

Ch7-6
Example 7. (Codeword enumeration)
A computer system considers a string of decimal digits
a valid codeword if it contains an even number of 0
digits. Let an be the number of valid n-digit codewords.
Find a recurrence relation for an.
Sol :

1 2 3 … n-1 n ∴ an = 9an1 + (10n1an1)

= 8an1 + 10n1 , n2
an1 種 1~9
a1 = 9
10n1 an1 種 0
Exercise : 3,23,25,27,29,41
(41 推廣成 Ch7-7
 7.2 Solving Recurrence Relations
Def 1. A linear homogeneous recurrence relation of
degree k (i.e., k terms) with constant coefficients
is a recurrence relation of the form
an = c1an1+c2an2+…+ckank
where ciR and ck≠0

Example 1 and 2.
fn = fn1 + fn2 (True, deg=2)
an = an5 (True, deg=5)
an = an1 + an22 (False, not linear)
(False , not linear)
an = nan1
(False, not homogeneous)
H = 2H + 1 Ch7-8
Theorem 1.
Let an = c1an1+ c2an2 be a recurrence relation
with c1,c2R.
If r2 c1r c2= 0 ( 稱為 characteristic equation)
has two distinct roots r1 and r2.
Then the solution of an is an = 1r1n + 2r2n ,
for n=0,1,2,…, where 1 , 2 are constants.
(1 , 2 可利用 a0, a1 算出 )

Ch7-9
Example 3.
What’s the solution of the recurrence relation
an = an1 + 2an2
with a0=2 and a1=7 ?
Sol :
The characteristic equation is r2 – r  2=0.
Its two roots are r1= 2 and r2 = 1.
Hence an=12n +2 (1)n .
∵a0 = 12 = 2, a1=212=7
∴1 = 3, 2 = 1 驗算： a2 = a1 + 2a0 =11
a = 32 1 =11
 an = 32n (1)n.
2
2
Ch7-10
Example 4. Find an explicit formula for the
Fibonacci numbers.
Sol :
fn = fn1 + fn2 , n  2, f0=0 , f1=1.
The characteristic equation is r2 r  1=0.
1 5 1 5
r1  r2 
Its two roots are 2 , 2 .
So we have f    (1  5 ) n   (1  5 ) n
n 1 2
2 2
1 5 1 5
 f 0  1   2  0, f1  1 ( )  2 ( ) 1
1 1 2 2
1  , 2 
5 5
1 1 5 n 1 1 5 n
 fn  ( )  ( )
5 2 5 2 Ch7-11
Thm 2.
Let an = c1an1+c2an2 be a recurrence relation
with c1,c2R.
If r2  c1r  c2= 0 has only one root r0 .
Then the solution of an is
an = 1  r0n + 2  n  r0n
for n=0,1,2,…, where 1 and 2 are constants.

Ch7-12
Example 5.
What’s the solution of an= 6an1 9an2
with a0=1 and a1=6 ?
Sol :
The root of r2  6r + 9 = 0 is r0 = 3.
Hence an = 1 ． 3n +2 ． n ． 3n .
∵a0 = 1 = 1
a 1 = 3  1 + 3 2 = 6
∴ 1 = 1 and 2 = 1
驗算： a2 = 6a1  9a0 =27
 an = 3 + n ． 3
n n
a2= 32 +2 32 =27
Ch7-13
Thm 3.
Let an = c1an1 + c2an2 + … + ckank be a
recurrence relation with c1, c2, …, ck  R.
If rk  c1rk-1  c2rk-2 … ck = 0 has k distinct roots
r1, r2,…, rk.
Then the solution of an is
an = 1r1n +2r2n + …+krkn, for n = 0, 1, 2, …
where 1, 2,…k are constants.

Ch7-14
Example 6 (k = 3)
Find the solution of an = 6an1  11an2 + 6an3
with initial conditions a0=2, a1=5 and a2=15 .
Sol :
The roots of r3  6r2 + 11r – 6 = 0 are
r1 = 1, r2 = 2, and r3 = 3
∴an = 1  1n + 2 2n + 3 3n
∵a0 = 1 + 2 + 3 = 2 1 = 1,
a1 = 1 + 22 + 33 = 5 2 = 1,
a2 = 1 + 42 + 93 = 15 3 = 2
驗算： a3 = 6a2  11a1+ 6a0 =47
∴an = 1  2 + 2  3
n n
a = 1  23 + 2  33 =47
3 Ch7-15
Thm 4.
Let an = c1an1 + c2an2 + … + ckank be a
recurrence relation with c1, c2, …, ck R.
If rk c1rk1 c2rk2 … ck = 0
has t distinct roots r1, r2, …, rt with
multiplicities m1, m2, …, mt respectively, where
mi  1,i, and m1+ m2 +…+ mt = k,
then
( 接下一頁 )

Ch7-16
 m1 1 n
an  (α1,0  α1,1  n  ...  α1,m1 1  n )r1
 ...
mi 1 n
 (αi ,0  αi,1  n  ...  αi,mi 1  n )  ri
 ...
mt 1 n
 (αt,0  αt,1  n  ...  αt,mt 1  n )  rt
where i,j are constants.
(1  i  t , 0  j  mi1)
Ch7-17
補充說明：
若特徵方程式的 root 為： 1 (2 重根 ),
2 (3 重根 ),
3 ( 無重根 )

則通解為：
an= (1+2n )  1n+ (3+4n +5n2 )  (2) n+6  3n

( 變數的下標從開始排起只
， 要不重複就好

Ch7-18
Example 8. Find the solution to the recurrence
relation an = 3an1  3an2  an3 with initial conditions
a0 = 1, a1 = 2 and a2 = 1.
Sol :
r3 + 3r2 + 3r + 1 = 0 has a single root r0 = 1 of
multiplicity three.
∴ an = (1+2n+3n2) r0n = (1+2n+3n2)(1)n
∵ a0 = 1 = 1
a1 = (1+2+3)  (1) = 2
a2 = (1+2+3) = 1 驗算： a3 =  3a2  3a1 a0 =8
a3= (1+33232)(1)3 =8
∴1 = 1, 2 = 3, 3 = 2
Exercise : 3,13,15,19
 an = (1+3n2n2)  (1)n Ch7-19
 7.4 Generating Functions.
Def 1. The generating function for the sequence {an}
is the infinite power series.
G(x) = a0 + a1x +… + anxn +…


= k
k
a x
k 0

( 若 {an} 是 finite ，可視為是 infinite ，但後面的 term

都等於 0)

Ch7-20
Example 2. What is the generating function
for the sequence 1,1,1,1,1,1 ?
Sol :
G ( x)  1  x  x  ...  x
2 5
(expansion ，展開式 )
x6 1
 (closed form)
x 1

Ch7-21
Example 3.
m
Let mZ+ and ak   k ,for k = 0, 1, …, m.
 
What is the generating function for the sequence
a0, a1,…, am ?
Sol :
G(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + … + amxm
 m  m  m 2  m m
      x    x      x
0 1 2  m

= (1+x)m (by 二項式定理 )

Ch7-22
Example 5.
1
The function f (x) = is the generating
1  ax

function of the sequence 1, a, a2, …,

1 
since 1  ax = 1 + ax + a2x2 + …=  (
k 0
ax ) k

when |ax| < 1 for a≠0

Ch7-23
( 跳過 )

Def 2.
Let uR and kZ+∪{0}. Then the extended

u 
binomial coefficient  k  is defined by
 
1
 u   u (u  1)(u  2)...(u  k  1), if k  0
    k!
 k  1 if k  0


Ch7-24
( 跳過 )

Example 7.
  2  12 
Find   and  
 3   3
   
Sol :

  2 1
   (2)(3)(4)  4
 3  3!
 12  1  1   1   3  1
      
 3  3!  2  2  2  16
Ch7-25
 ( 跳過 )

Thm 2. (The Extended Binomial Theorem)

Let xR with |x|<1 and let uR, then
 x

1  x  u
 u
k
k

k 0

Ch7-26
Example 9. ( 跳過 )
Find the generating functions for (1+x)n and (1x)n
where nZ+
Sol : By the Extended Binomial Theorem,

  n  
1
(1  x)     x   ( n)(n  1) ... (n  k  1) x k
n k

k 0  k  k  0 k!

(1) k
 (n) (n  1) ... (n  k  1) x k
k 0 k!
 n k  n  k  1
k  n  k  1 k

 (1)   x Note :    (1)  
k 0  k   k   k 

By replacing x by –x we have

 n  k  1 k
(1  x)   
n
 x
k 0  k 
Ch7-27
 ※Using Generating Functions to solve
Recurrence Relations.
Example 16.
Solving the recurrence relation ak = 3ak1 for
k=1,2,3,… and initial condition a0 = 2.
Sol :
另法： (by 6.2 公式 )
r – 3 = 0  r = 3  an =  3n
∵ a0 = 2 = 
∴ an = 2  3n
Ch7-28
 
Let G ( x)  a0  a1 x  a2 x  ...   ak x be the
2 k

k 0
generating function for {ak}.
First note that ak xk = 3ak1 xk
   

 k  k 1  k 1  k
k 1
a x k
 3 a x k
 3 x a x  3 x a x k

k 1 k 1 k 1 k 0

 G(x)  a0 = 3x  G(x)
∵a0 = 2  G(x)  3x  G(x) = G(x)(13x) = 2
 
2
 G ( x)   2   (3x) k   2  3k  x k
1  3x k 0 k 0

∴ ak = 2  3 k Exercise : 5,7,11,33 Ch7-29

 7.5 Inclusion-Exclusion 排容原理
A,B,C,D : sets
(1). A  B  A  B  A  B
(2). A  B C  A  B  C  A  B  A C  B C  A  B C
A
1 |A|+|B|+|C| 時
各部分被計算的次數
2
1 21
2
3
1
0
-|AB|-|AC|-|BC| 後
1 2 1 C
B 1
+|ABC| 後

(3). A  B C  D  ?
Ch7-30
Theorem 1.
A1, A2, …, An : sets
n
A1  A2 ...  An   Ai   A A i j
i 1 1i  j  n

  Ai  A j  Ak  ...  (1) n  A1  A2 ...  An

1 i , j , k  n

Exercise : 17 Ch7-31
 7.6 Applications of Inclusion and
Exclusion
Example 2. How many onto functions are there
form set A={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} to set B={a, b, c} ?
Sol : f : A → B
f (1)= {a, b, c} 不同的填法造出不同的函數
f (2)= 如何使 a,b,c 都出現 ?
︰ ︰
f (6)=

＃ of onto functions
= ( 所有函數個數 )  (a,b,c 中有一個沒被對應 )
+ (a,b,c 中二個沒被對應 )  (a,b,c 都沒被對應 )
= 6
3     2    1     0
3
1
6 3 6
2
3 6
3 Ch7-32
Thm 1. |A| = m , |B| = n
There are
n 
m
    n  1     (n  2)     (n  3)
n
1
m n
2
m n
3
m
 ...
 (1)    1
n 1 n
n 1
m

onto functions f : A → B.
pf :
A = {a1, a2, …, am}. B = {b1, b2, …, bn}
f (a1)=
f (a2)= b1, b2, …, bn
︰ ︰
f (am)= Ch7-33
 ( 跳過 )

※Derangements 亂序
Def.
A derangement is a permutation of
objects that leaves no object in its
original position.

Ch7-34
 ( 跳過 )
Example 5. 21453, 23451, 34512, …
are derangements of 12345 :

Def.
Let Dn be the number of derangements of n objects.

D4 = ( 所有 4 個元素的 permutation 數 )
 (4 個元素有一個在原位置的 permutation 數 )
+ (4 元素中有二個在原位置的個數 )
 (4 個元素中有三個在原位置的個數 )
+ (4 元素都在原位置的個數 )
 4  4  4  4
= 4!   3!   2!  1!   0!
1  2  3  4
Ch7-35
( 跳過 )

Theorem 2. ( 亂序公式 )
Dn  n!   n1   (n  1)!   n2   (n  2)!  ...  (1) n  nn   0!
n! (n  1)! n! (n  2)!
 n! (1      ...
1!(n  1)! n! 2!(n  2)! n!
n! 0!
 (1) 
n
 )
n!0! n!
1 1 n 1
 n! ( 1    ...  (1)  )
1! 2! n!

Exercise : 8, 13 Ch7-36