Chapter 1: Introduction

Our goal: Overview:

 get context,  what’s the Internet
overview, “feel” of  what’s a protocol?
networking  network edge
 more depth, detail
 network core
later in course
 access net, physical media
 approach:
 Internet/ISP structure
 descriptive
 performance: loss, delay
 use Internet as
 protocol layers, service models
example
 history

Introduction 1-1
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Introduction 1-2
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
 millions of connected router
workstation
computing devices: hosts,
end-systems server
mobile
 PCs workstations, servers local ISP
 PDAs phones, toasters
running network apps
 communication links regional ISP
 fiber, copper, radio,
satellite
 transmission rate =
bandwidth
 routers: forward packets company
(chunks of data) network

Introduction 1-3
“Cool” internet appliances

IP picture frame
http://www.ceiva.com/

Web-enabled toaster+weather forecaster

World’s smallest web server

http://www-ccs.cs.umass.edu/~shri/iPic.html

Introduction 1-4
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
 protocols control sending, router workstation
receiving of msgs server
 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, FTP, PPP mobile
 Internet: “network of local ISP
networks”
 loosely hierarchical
 public Internet versus regional ISP
private intranet
 Internet standards
 RFC: Request for comments
 IETF: Internet Engineering
Task Force company
network

Introduction 1-5
What’s the Internet: a service view
 communication
infrastructure enables
distributed applications:
 Web, email, games, e-
commerce, database.,
voting, file (MP3) sharing
 communication services
provided to apps:
 connectionless
 connection-oriented

 cyberspace [Gibson]:
“a consensual hallucination experienced daily by
billions of operators, in every nation, ...."
Introduction 1-6
What’s a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
 “what’s the time?”  machines rather than
 “I have a question” humans
 introductions  all communication
activity in Internet
… specific msgs sent governed by protocols
… specific actions taken protocols define format,
when msgs received, order of msgs sent and
or other events received among network
entities, and actions
taken on msg
transmission, receipt
Introduction 1-7
What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
req
Hi
TCP connection
Got the response
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Q: Other human protocols?

Introduction 1-8
Key Elements of a Protocol
 Syntax
 Data formats
 Signal levels

 Semantics
 Control information
 Error handling

 Timing
 Speed matching
 Sequencing

Introduction 1-9
A closer look at network structure:

 network edge:
applications and
hosts
 network core:
 routers
 network of
networks
 access networks,
physical media:
communication links
Introduction 1-10
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Introduction 1-11
 The network edge:
 end systems (hosts):
 run application programs
 e.g. Web, email
 at “edge of network”
 client/server model
 client host requests, receives
service from always-on server
 e.g. Web browser/server;
email client/server
 peer-peer model:
 minimal (or no) use of
dedicated servers
 e.g. Gnutella, KaZaA
Introduction 1-12
Network edge: connection-oriented service

Goal: data transfer TCP service [RFC 793]

between end systems  reliable, in-order byte-
 handshaking: setup stream data transfer
(prepare for) data  loss: acknowledgements
transfer ahead of time and retransmissions
 Hello, hello back human  flow control:
protocol  sender won’t overwhelm
 set up “state” in two receiver
communicating hosts
 congestion control:
 TCP - Transmission  senders “slow down sending
Control Protocol rate” when network
 Internet’s connection- congested
oriented service
Introduction 1-13
Network edge: connectionless service

Goal: data transfer App’s using TCP:

between end systems  HTTP (Web), FTP (file
 same as before! transfer), Telnet
 UDP - User Datagram (remote login), SMTP
Protocol [RFC 768]: (email)
Internet’s
connectionless service
App’s using UDP:
 unreliable data
 streaming media,
transfer
teleconferencing, DNS,
 no flow control
Internet telephony
 no congestion control

Introduction 1-14
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Introduction 1-15
The Network Core
 mesh of interconnected
routers
 the fundamental
question: how is data
transferred through net?
 circuit switching:
dedicated circuit per
call: telephone net
 packet-switching: data
sent thru net in
discrete “chunks”

Introduction 1-16
Network Core: Circuit Switching

End-end resources
reserved for “call”
 link bandwidth, switch
capacity
 dedicated resources:
no sharing
 circuit-like
(guaranteed)
performance
 call setup required

Introduction 1-17
Network Core: Circuit Switching
network resources  dividing link bandwidth
(e.g., bandwidth) into “pieces”
divided into “pieces”  frequency division
 pieces allocated to calls  time division
 resource piece idle if
not used by owning call
(no sharing)

Introduction 1-18
Circuit Switching: TDMA and TDMA
Example:
FDMA
4 users

frequency

time
TDMA

frequency

time
Introduction 1-19
Network Core: Packet Switching
each end-end data stream resource contention:
divided into packets  aggregate resource
 user A, B packets share demand can exceed
network resources amount available
 each packet uses full link  congestion: packets
bandwidth queue, wait for link use
 resources used as needed  store and forward:
packets move one hop
at a time
Bandwidth division into “pieces”
 transmit over link
Dedicated allocation
 wait turn at next
Resource reservation
link
Introduction 1-20
Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing
10 Mbs
A Ethernet statistical multiplexing C

1.5 Mbs
B
queue of packets
waiting for output
link

D E

Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed

pattern  statistical multiplexing.
In TDM each host gets same slot in revolving TDM
frame.
Introduction 1-21
Packet switching versus circuit switching
Packet switching allows more users to use network!
 1 Mbit link
 each user:
 100 kbps when “active”
 active 10% of time

N users
 circuit-switching: 1 Mbps link
 10 users

 packet switching:
 with 35 users,
probability > 10 active
less than .0004

Introduction 1-22
Packet switching versus circuit switching
Is packet switching a “slam dunk winner?”

 Great for bursty data

 resource sharing
 simpler, no call setup
 Excessive congestion: packet delay and loss
 protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
 bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video
apps
 still an unsolved problem (chapter 6)

Introduction 1-23
Packet-switching: store-and-forward
L
R R R

 Takes L/R seconds to Example:

transmit (push out)  L = 7.5 Mbits
packet of L bits on to  R = 1.5 Mbps
link or R bps
 delay = 15 sec
 Entire packet must
arrive at router before
it can be transmitted
on next link: store and
forward
 delay = 3L/R

Introduction 1-24
Packet Switching: Message Segmenting

Now break up the message

into 5000 packets
 Each packet 1,500 bits
 1 msec to transmit
packet on one link
 pipelining: each link
works in parallel
 Delay reduced from 15
sec to 5.002 sec

Introduction 1-25
Packet-switched networks: forwarding
 Goal: move packets through routers from source to
destination
 we’ll study several path selection (i.e. routing)algorithms
(chapter 4)
 datagram network:
 destination address in packet determines next hop
 routes may change during session
 analogy: driving, asking directions

 virtual circuit network:

 each packet carries tag (virtual circuit ID), tag
determines next hop
 fixed path determined at call setup time, remains fixed
thru call
 routers maintain per-call state
Introduction 1-26
Network Taxonomy
Telecommunication
networks

Circuit-switched Packet-switched
networks networks

FDM Networks Datagram

TDM
with VCs Networks

• Datagram network is not either connection-oriented

or connectionless.
• Internet provides both connection-oriented (TCP) and
connectionless services (UDP) to apps.
Introduction 1-27
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Introduction 1-28
Access networks and physical media
Q: How to connection end
systems to edge router?
 residential access nets
 institutional access
networks (school,
company)
 mobile access networks

Keep in mind:
 bandwidth (bits per
second) of access
network?
 shared or dedicated?
Introduction 1-29
Residential access: point to point access

 Dialup via modem

 up to 56Kbps direct access to
router (often less)
 Can’t surf and phone at same
time: can’t be “always on”
 ADSL: asymmetric digital subscriber line
 up to 1 Mbps upstream (today typically < 256 kbps)
 up to 8 Mbps downstream (today typically < 1 Mbps)
 FDM: 50 kHz - 1 MHz for downstream
4 kHz - 50 kHz for upstream
0 kHz - 4 kHz for ordinary telephone
Introduction 1-30
Residential access: cable modems

 HFC: hybrid fiber coax

 asymmetric: up to 10Mbps upstream, 1 Mbps
downstream
 network of cable and fiber attaches homes to
ISP router
 shared access to router among home
 issues: congestion, dimensioning
 deployment: available via cable companies, e.g.,
MediaOne

Introduction 1-31
Residential access: cable modems

Diagram: http://www.cabledatacomnews.com/cmic/diagram.html Introduction 1-32

Cable Network Architecture: Overview

Typically 500 to 5,000 homes

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network (simplified)

Introduction 1-33
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network (simplified)

Introduction 1-34
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

server(s)

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network

Introduction 1-35
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

FDM:
C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network

Introduction 1-36
Company access: local area networks
 company/univ local area
network (LAN) connects
end system to edge router
 Ethernet:
 shared or dedicated link
connects end system
and router
 10 Mbs, 100Mbps,
Gigabit Ethernet
 deployment: institutions,
home LANs happening now
 LANs: chapter 5

Introduction 1-37
Wireless access networks
 shared wireless access
network connects end system
to router router
 via base station aka “access
point” base
 wireless LANs: station
 802.11b (WiFi): 11 Mbps

 wider-area wireless access

 provided by telco operator
 3G ~ 384 kbps
mobile
• Will it happen??
hosts
 WAP/GPRS in Europe

Introduction 1-38
Home networks
Typical home network components:
 ADSL or cable modem
 router/firewall/NAT
 Ethernet
 wireless access
point
wireless
to/from laptops
cable router/
cable
modem firewall
headend
wireless
access
Ethernet point
(switched)
Introduction 1-39
Physical Media
Twisted Pair (TP)
 Bit: propagates between  two insulated copper
transmitter/rcvr pairs wires
 physical link: what lies  Category 3: traditional
between transmitter & phone wires, 10 Mbps
receiver Ethernet
Category 5 TP:
 guided media:

100Mbps Ethernet
 signals propagate in solid
media: copper, fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio

Introduction 1-40
Physical Media: coax, fiber
Coaxial cable: Fiber optic cable:
 glass fiber carrying light
 two concentric copper
pulses, each pulse a bit
conductors
 high-speed operation:
 bidirectional
 high-speed point-to-point
 baseband: transmission (e.g., 5 Gps)
 single channel on cable  low error rate: repeaters
 legacy Ethernet spaced far apart ; immune
 broadband: to electromagnetic noise
 multiple channel on cable
 HFC

Introduction 1-41
Physical media: radio
 signal carried in Radio link types:
electromagnetic  terrestrial microwave
spectrum  e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels

 no physical “wire”  LAN (e.g., WaveLAN)

 bidirectional  2Mbps, 11Mbps

 propagation  wide-area (e.g., cellular)

environment effects:  e.g. 3G: hundreds of kbps

 reflection  satellite
 obstruction by objects  up to 50Mbps channel (or
 interference multiple smaller channels)
 270 msec end-end delay
 geosynchronous versus
LEOS
Introduction 1-42
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Introduction 1-43
 Internet structure: network of networks

 roughly hierarchical
 at center: “tier-1” ISPs (e.g., UUNet, BBN/Genuity,
Sprint, AT&T), national/international coverage
 treat each other as equals

Tier-1 providers
also interconnect
Tier-1 at public network
providers
Tier 1 ISP
NAP access points
interconnect (NAPs)
(peer)
privately
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP

Introduction 1-44
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint
Sprint US backbone network

Introduction 1-45
 Internet structure: network of networks

 “Tier-2” ISPs: smaller (often regional) ISPs

 Connect to one or more tier-1 ISPs, possibly other tier-2 ISPs

Tier-2 ISPs
Tier-2 ISP pays Tier-2 ISP also peer
Tier-2 ISP privately with
tier-1 ISP for
connectivity to Tier 1 ISP each other,
rest of Internet NAP interconnect
 tier-2 ISP is
at NAP
customer of
tier-1 provider Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Introduction 1-46
 Internet structure: network of networks

 “Tier-3” ISPs and local ISPs

 last hop (“access”) network (closest to end systems)

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Local and tier- Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
3 ISPs are
customers of Tier 1 ISP
higher tier NAP
ISPs
connecting
them to rest
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP
of Internet
local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP Introduction 1-47
 Internet structure: network of networks

 a packet passes through many networks!

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier 1 ISP
NAP

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP Introduction 1-48
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Introduction 1-49
 How do loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
 packet arrival rate to link exceeds output link capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn

packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction 1-50
Four sources of packet delay
 1. nodal processing:  2. queuing
 check bit errors  time waiting at output
 determine output link link for transmission
 depends on congestion
level of router

transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

Introduction 1-51
Delay in packet-switched networks
3. Transmission delay: 4. Propagation delay:
 R=link bandwidth (bps)  d = length of physical link
 L=packet length (bits)  s = propagation speed in
 time to send bits into medium (~2x108 m/sec)
link = L/R  propagation delay = d/s

Note: s and R are very

different quantities!
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing
Introduction 1-52
Packet Processing inside switches
Output
Forwarding
Table
Scheduling
Interconnect
Forwarding
Decision

Forwarding
Table

Forwarding
Decision

Forwarding
Table

Forwarding
Decision

Introduction 1-53
Switching Fabric

Introduction 1-54
Switching Interconnects
Two basic techniques

Input Queuing Output Queuing

Usually a non-blocking Usually a fast bus

switch fabric (e.g. crossbar)
Introduction 1-55
 Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
 Cars “propagate” at  Time to “push” entire
100 km/hr caravan through toll
 Toll booth takes 12 sec to booth onto highway =
service a car 12*10 = 120 sec
(transmission time)  Time for last car to
 car~bit; caravan ~ packet propagate from 1st to
2nd toll both:
 Q: How long until caravan
100km/(100km/hr)= 1 hr
is lined up before 2nd toll
booth?  A: 62 minutes

Introduction 1-56
Caravan analogy (more)
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
 Yes! After 7 min, 1st car
 Cars now “propagate” at at 2nd booth and 3 cars
1000 km/hr still at 1st booth.
 Toll booth now takes 1  1st bit of packet can
min to service a car arrive at 2nd router
 Q: Will cars arrive to before packet is fully
2nd booth before all transmitted at 1st router!
cars serviced at 1st  See Ethernet applet at AWL
booth? Web site

Introduction 1-57
Nodal delay
d nodal  d proc  d queue  d trans  d prop

 dproc = processing delay

 typically a few microsecs or less

 dqueue = queuing delay

 depends on congestion

 dtrans = transmission delay

 = L/R, significant for low-speed links

 dprop = propagation delay

 a few microsecs to hundreds of msecs

Introduction 1-58
Queueing delay (revisited)

 R=link bandwidth (bps)

 L=packet length (bits)
 a=average packet
arrival rate

traffic intensity = La/R

 La/R ~ 0: average queueing delay small

 La/R -> 1: delays become large
 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving than can be
serviced, average delay infinite!
Introduction 1-59
“Real” Internet delays and routes

 What do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?

 Traceroute program: provides delay
measurement from source to router along end-end
Internet path towards destination. For all i:
 sends three packets that will reach router i on path
towards destination
 router i will return packets to sender
 sender times interval between transmission and reply.

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

Introduction 1-60
“Real” Internet delays and routes
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
Three delay measurements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
link
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

Introduction 1-61
Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer
has finite capacity
 when packet arrives to full queue, packet is
dropped (aka lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by
previous node, by source end system, or
not retransmitted at all

Introduction 1-62
Switching Techniques Revisited

Introduction 1-63
Exercise
N = number of hops L = message length (bits)
R = data rate (bps) P = packet size (bits)
H = packet overhead S = setup time (sec)
D = propagation delay per hop (sec)

Compute end-to-end delay for circuit switching,

datagram and virtual circuit, for:
N=4, L=3200, R=9600, P=1024,
H=16, S=0.2, D=0.001

Introduction 1-64
Solution (I)
a. Circuit Switching
T = C1 + C2
where
C1 = Call Setup Time
C2 = Message Delivery Time
C1 = S = 0.2
C2 = Propagation Delay + Transmission Time
= N x D + L/R
= 4 x 0.001 + 3200/9600 = 0.337
T = 0.2 + 0.337 = 0.537 sec

Introduction 1-65
Solution (II)
Datagram Packet Switching
T = D1 + D2 + D3 + D4 where
D1 = Time to Transmit and Deliver all packets
through first hop
D2 = Time to Deliver last packet across second hop
D3 = Time to Deliver last packet across third hop
D4 = Time to Deliver last packet across forth hop

There are P – H = 1024 – 16 = 1008 data bits per packet. A

message of 3200 bits require four packets (3200 bits/1008
bits/packet = 3.17 packets which we round up to 4 packets).

Introduction 1-66
Solution (III)
D1 = Np x t + p
where
t = transmission time for one packet
D = propagation delay for one hop
D1 = 4 x (P/R) + D
= 4 x (1024/9600) + 0.001
= 0.428
D2 = D3 = D4
= (P/R) + D
= (1024/9600) + 0.001 = 0.108
T = 0.428 + 0.108 + 0.108 + 0.108
= 0.752 sec
Introduction 1-67
Solution (VI)
Virtual Circuit Packet Switching

T = V1 + V2
where
V1 = Call Setup Time
V2 = Datagram Packet Switching Time

T = S + 0.752 = 0.2 + 0.752 = 0.952 sec

Introduction 1-68
Solution (V)
In general,
Tc = S + N x D + L/R

Td = D1 + (N – 1)Di
= Np(P/R) + D + (N-1) x (P/R + D)

Tv = S + Td

Introduction 1-69
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Introduction 1-70
Protocol “Layers”
Networks are complex!
 many “pieces”:
 hosts Question:
 routers Is there any hope of
 links of various organizing structure of
media network?
 applications
 protocols Or at least our discussion
 hardware, of networks?
software

Introduction 1-71
Organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

 a series of steps

Introduction 1-72
Organization of air travel: a different view

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

Layers: each layer implements a service

 via its own internal-layer actions
 relying on services provided by layer below
Introduction 1-73
Layered air travel: services

Counter-to-counter delivery of person+bags

baggage-claim-to-baggage-claim delivery

people transfer: loading gate to arrival gate

runway-to-runway delivery of plane

airplane routing from source to destination

Introduction 1-74
Distributed implementation of layer functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

Departing airport

arriving airport
baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

intermediate air traffic sites

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing
Introduction 1-75
Why layering?
Dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance, updating of
system
 change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect
rest of system
 layering considered harmful?

Introduction 1-76
Internet protocol stack
 application: supporting network
applications application
 FTP, SMTP, STTP
 transport: host-host data transfer transport
 TCP, UDP

 network: routing of datagrams from network

source to destination
 IP, routing protocols link
 link: data transfer between
neighboring network elements physical
 PPP, Ethernet
 physical: bits “on the wire”

Introduction 1-77
Layering: logical communication
Each layer: application
transport
 distributed network
 “entities” link
physical
implement network
layer functions application link
at each node transport physical
network
 entities link
perform physical
application application
actions, transport transport
exchange network network
link link
messages with physical physical
peers

Introduction 1-78
Layering: logical communication
data
E.g.: transport application
transport
transport
 take data from app
network
 add addressing, link
reliability check physical
info to form ack network
“datagram” application link
 send datagram to transport data physical
network
peer
link
 wait for peer to data
physical
ack receipt application application
transport transport
transport
 analogy: post network network
office link link
physical physical

Introduction 1-79
Layering: physical communication
data
application
transport
network
link
physical
network
application link
transport physical
network
link
physical data
application application
transport transport
network network
link link
physical physical

Introduction 1-80
Addressing
 Addressing level
 Addressing scope
 Connection identifiers
 Addressing mode

Introduction 1-81
Addressing level
 Level in architecture at which entity is
named
 Unique address for each end system
(computer) and router
 Network level address
 IP or internet address (TCP/IP)
 Network service access point or NSAP (OSI)

 Process within the system

 Port number (TCP/IP)
 Service access point or SAP (OSI)

Introduction 1-82
Address Concepts

Introduction 1-83
Addressing Scope
 Global non-ambiguity
 Global address identifies unique system
 There is only one system with address X

 Global applicability
 It is possible at any system (any address) to
identify any other system (address) by the
global address of the other system
 Address X identifies that system from
anywhere on the network
 e.g. MAC address on IEEE 802 networks

Introduction 1-84
Connection Identifiers
 Connection oriented data transfer (virtual
circuits)
 Allocate a connection name during the
transfer phase
 Reduced overhead as connection identifiers are
shorter than global addresses
 Routing may be fixed and identified by
connection name
 Entities may want multiple connections -
multiplexing
 State information
Introduction 1-85
Addressing Mode
 Usually an address refers to a single
system
 Unicast address
 Sent to one machine or person

 May address all entities within a domain

 Broadcast
 Sent to all machines or users

 May address a subset of the entities in a

domain
 Multicast
 Sent to some machines or a group of users
Introduction 1-86
Multiplexing
 Supporting multiple connections on one
machine
 Mapping of multiple connections at one
level to a single connection at another
 Carrying a number of connections on one fiber
optic cable
 Aggregating or bonding ISDN lines to gain
bandwidth

Introduction 1-87
 Protocol layering and data
Each layer takes data from above
 adds header information to create new data unit
 passes new data unit to layer below

source destination
M application application M message
Ht M transport transport Ht M segment
Hn Ht M network network Hn Ht M datagram
Hl Hn Ht M link link Hl Hn Ht M frame
physical physical

Introduction 1-88
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 ISPs and Internet backbones
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Internet structure and ISPs
1.8 History

Introduction 1-89
Internet History
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles

 1961: Kleinrock - queueing  1972:

theory shows  ARPAnet demonstrated
effectiveness of packet- publicly
switching
 NCP (Network Control
 1964: Baran - packet- Protocol) first host-
switching in military nets host protocol
 1967: ARPAnet conceived  first e-mail program
by Advanced Research
 ARPAnet has 15 nodes
Projects Agency
 1969: first ARPAnet node
operational

Introduction 1-90
 Internet History
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets
 1970: ALOHAnet satellite Cerf and Kahn’s
network in Hawaii internetworking principles:
 1973: Metcalfe’s PhD thesis  minimalism, autonomy -
proposes Ethernet no internal changes
 1974: Cerf and Kahn - required to
architecture for interconnect networks
interconnecting networks  best effort service
 late70’s: proprietary model
architectures: DECnet, SNA,  stateless routers
XNA
 decentralized control
 late 70’s: switching fixed
define today’s Internet
length packets (ATM
architecture
precursor)
 1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes
Introduction 1-91
Internet History
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks

 1983: deployment of  new national networks:

TCP/IP Csnet, BITnet,
 1982: SMTP e-mail NSFnet, Minitel
protocol defined  100,000 hosts
 1983: DNS defined connected to
for name-to-IP- confederation of
address translation networks
 1985: FTP protocol
defined
 1988: TCP congestion
control
Introduction 1-92
Internet History
1990, 2000’s: commercialization, the Web, new apps

 Early 1990’s: ARPAnet Late 1990’s – 2000’s:

decommissioned
 more killer apps: instant
 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on
messaging, peer2peer
commercial use of NSFnet
(decommissioned, 1995)
file sharing (e.g.,
Napster)
 early 1990s: Web
 network security to
 hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson
1960’s] forefront
 HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee  est. 50 million host, 100
 1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
million+ users
 late 1990’s:  backbone links running
commercialization of the Web at Gbps

Introduction 1-93
Introduction: Summary
Covered a “ton” of material! You now have:
 Internet overview  context, overview,
 what’s a protocol? “feel” of networking
 network edge, core, access  more depth, detail to
network follow!
 packet-switching versus
circuit-switching
 Internet/ISP structure
 performance: loss, delay
 layering and service
models
 history

Introduction 1-94