DNA

(Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
 Genetic material of cells…
• GENES – units of genetic material that
CODES FOR A SPECIFIC TRAIT

• Called NUCLEIC ACIDS

• DNA is made up of repeating molecules

called NUCLEOTIDES
 Central Dogma
DNA ---------→ RNA---------→Protein.
• This unidirectional flow equation represents the
Central Dogma (fundamental law) of molecular
biology.
• This is the mechanism whereby inherited
information is used to create actual objects, namely
enzymes and structural proteins.

• An exception to the central dogma is that certain

viruses (retroviruses) make DNA from RNA using the
enzyme reverse transcriptase.
 Gene Expression
• Genes are DNA sequences that encode
proteins (the gene product)

• Gene expression refers to the process

whereby the information contained in genes
begins to have effects in the cell.

• DNA encodes and transmits the genetic

information passed down from parents to
offspring.
 Genetic code
• The alphabet of the genetic code contains
only four letters (A,T,G,C).

• A number of experiments confirmed that the

genetic code is written in 3-letter words, each
of which codes for particular amino acid.

• A nucleic acid word (3 nucleotide letters) is

referred to as a codon.
 Nucleic acids
• Principle information molecule in the
cell.

• All the genetic codes are carried out on

the nucleic acids.

• Nucleic acid is a linear polymer of

nucleotides
 Types of Nucleic acids
There are 2 types of nucleic acids:
1. Deoxy-ribonucleic acid (DNA)
• Pentose Sugar is deoxyribose (no OH at 2’ position)
• Bases are Purines (A, G) and Pyrimidine (C, T).
2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• Pentose Sugar is Ribose.
• Bases are Purines (A, G) and Pyrimidines (C, U).
 DNA Nucleotide
Phosphate
Group

O 5
O=P-O CH2
O
O
N
Nitrogenous base
C4 C1 (A, G, C, or T)
Sugar
(deoxyribose)
C3 C2
 A HISTORY OF DNA

• Discovery of the DNA double helix

A. Frederick Griffith – Discovers that a factor
in diseased bacteria can transform harmless
bacteria into deadly bacteria (1928)
B. Rosalind Franklin - X-ray photo of DNA.
(1952)
C. Watson and Crick - described the
DNA molecule from Franklin’s X-ray.
(1953)
Watson & Crick proposed…
•DNA had specific pairing between the
nitrogen bases:
ADENINE – THYMINE
CYTOSINE - GUANINE

•DNA was made of 2 long stands of

nucleotides arranged in a specific
way called the “Complementary Rule”
DNA Double Helix
“Rungs of ladder”

Nitrogenous
Base (A,T,G or C)

“Legs of ladder”

Phosphate &
Sugar Backbone
 DNA Double Helix
5 O 3

3 O
P 5 P
5 O
1 G C 3
2
4 4
2 1
3 5
O
P P
5
T A 3

O
5
P 3 P
 Nitrogenous Bases
• PURINES
1. Adenine (A)
2. Guanine (G)
A or G
• PYRIMIDINES
3. Thymine (T)
4. Cytosine (C) T or C
 Chargaff’s Rule
• Adenine must pair with Thymine
• Guanine must pair with Cytosine
• Their amounts in a given DNA molecule will be
about the same.

T A G C
BASE-PAIRINGS
H-bonds

G C

T A
 Genetic Diversity…
• Different
arrangements of
NUCLEOTIDES in a
nucleic acid (DNA)
provides the key to
DIVERSITY among
living organisms.
 The Code of Life…
• The “code” of the chromosome is the
SPECIFIC ORDER that bases occur.

A T C G T A T G C G G…
 DNA structure
• DNA is a double stranded molecule consists of 2
polynucleotide chains running in opposite
directions.
• Both strands are complementary to each other.
• The bases are on the inside of the molecules
and the 2 chains are joined together by double
H-bond between A and T and triple H-bond
between C and G.
• The base pairing is very specific which make the
2 strands complementary to each other.
• So each strand contain all the required
information for synthesis (replication) of a new
copy to its complementary.
 DNA is wrapped tightly around
histones and coiled tightly to form
chromosomes
 RNA structure
• It is formed of linear polynucleotide
• It is generally single stranded
• The pentose sugar is Ribose
• Uracile (U) replace Thymine (T) in the
pyrimidine bases.

Although RNA is generally single stranded,

intra-molecular H-bond base pairing occur
between complementary bases on the same
molecule (secondary structure)
The Amino Acids: Building Blocks of Proteins
Abbreviation Amino Acid
Ala A Alanine
Arg R Arginine
Asn N Asparagine
Asp D Aspartic Acid
Cys C Cysteine
Gln Q Glutamine
Glu E Glutamic Acid
Gly G Glycine
His H Histidine
Ile I Isoleucine
Leu L Leucine
Lys K Lysine
Met M Methionine
Phe F Phenylalanine
Pro P Proline
Ser S Serine
Thr T Threonine
Trp W Tryptophan
Tyr Y Tyrosine
Val V Valine
 The Genetic Code Table
U C A G
Phenylalanine Serine Tyrosine Cysteine U
Phenylalanine Serine Tyrosine Cysteine C
U STOP or
Leucine Serine STOP A
selenocysteine
Leucine Serine STOP Tryptophan G
Leucine Proline Histidine Arginine U
Leucine Proline Histidine Arginine C
C
Leucine Proline Glutamine Arginine A
Leucine Proline Glutamine Arginine G
Isoleucine Threonine Asparagine Serine U
Isoleucine Threonine Asparagine Serine C
A Isoleucine Threonine Lysine Arginine A
(Start)
Threonine Lysine Arginine G
Methionine
Valine Alanine Aspartic Acid Glycine U
Valine Alanine Aspartic Acid Glycine C
G
Valine Alanine Glutamic Acid Glycine A
Valine Alanine Glutamic Acid Glycine G
 Types of RNA
• Messenger RNA (mRNA):
– Carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of
a series of 3-base code, each of which specifies a particular
amino acid.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA):
– It is the key that read the code on the mRNA.
– Each amino acid has its own tRNA, which binds to it and
carries it to the growing end of a polypeptide chain.
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):
– Associated with a set of proteins to form the ribosomes.
– These complex structures, which physically move along the
mRNA molecule, catalyze the assembly of amino acids into
protein chain.
– They also bind tRNAs that have the specific amino acids
according to the code.
 DNA Replication
• DNA must be copied

• The DNA molecule produces 2

IDENTICAL new complementary
strands following the rules of
base pairing:
A-T, G-C

•Each strand of the

original DNA serves as
a template for the new
strand
 DNA Replication
• Semiconservative
Model:
1. Watson and Crick
showed: the two strands
of the parental molecule
separate, and each
functions as a template
for synthesis of a new
complementary strand. DNA Template
Parental DNA
. New DNA
Replication Quiz

1. Why is replication necessary? A---?

G---?
2. When does replication occur? C---?
T---?
3. Describe how replication works. A---?
G---?
4. Use the complementary rule to A---?
create the complementary G---?
strand: C---?
A---?
G---?
T---?
Replication Quiz
A---T
1. Why is replication necessary? G---C
So both new cells will have the correct C---G
DNA
T---A
2. When does replication occur?
A---T
During interphase (S phase).
G---C
3. Describe how replication works.
A---T
Enzymes unzip DNA and complementary
nucleotides join each original strand. G---C
4. Use the complementary rule to C---G
create the complementary strand: A---T
G---C
T---A
(1961) Watson & Crick proposed…
• …DNA controlled cell function by
serving as a template for PROTEIN
structure.

• 3 Nucleotides = a triplet or CODON

(which code for a specific AMINO ACID)
See p.303

• AMINO ACIDS are the building blocks

of proteins.
 DNA Transcription
• DNA can “unzip”
itself and RNA
nucleotides match
up to the DNA
strand. See p.301

• Both DNA & RNA

are formed from
NUCLEOTIDES and
are called NUCLEIC
acids.
 DNA Translation
• The cell uses
information from
“messenger” RNA
to produce proteins
See p.304-305

We will
discuss details
of this on a
later date
 Transcription/Translation Quiz
1. Why is transcription necessary?
2. Describe transcription.
3. Why is translation necessary?
4. Describe translation.
5. What are the main differences
between DNA and RNA.
6. Using the chart on page 303,
identify the amino acids coded for by
these codons:
UGGCAGUGC
1. Why is transcription necessary?
Transcription makes messenger RNA (MRNA)
to carry the code for proteins out of the
nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
2. Describe transcription.
RNA polymerase binds to DNA, separates the
strands, then uses one strand as a template to
assemble MRNA.
3. Why is translation necessary?
Translation assures that the right amino acids
are joined together by peptides to form the
correct protein.
4. Describe translation.
The cell uses information from MRNA to
produce proteins.
5. What are the main differences between
DNA and RNA.
DNA has deoxyribose, RNA has ribose;
DNA has 2 strands, RNA has one strand;
DNA has thymine, RNA has uracil.
6. Using the chart on page 303, identify the
amino acids coded for by these codons:
UGGCAGUGC
tryptophan-glutamine-cysteine
 AMAZING DNA FACTS…
• DNA from a single human
cell extends in a single
thread for almost 2 meters
long!!!

• It contains information
equal to some 600,000
printed pages of 500 words
each!!!
(a library of about 1,000 books)
 LET’S REVIEW DNA
1. List the conclusions Griffith & Avery,
Hershey & Chase drew from their
experiments.
2. Summarize the relationship between
genes & DNA.
3. Describe the overall structure of the
DNA molecule.
4. What are the 4 kinds of bases?