B.SC.

II
PAPER-B
(OPTICS and LASERS)

Submitted by
Dr. Sarvpreet Kaur
Assistant Professor
PGGCG-11, Chandigarh
 Unit-IV
Lasers and Fiber
optics
 LASERS
History of the LASER
• Invented in 1958 by Charles Townes (Nobel prize
in Physics 1964) and Arthur Schawlow of Bell
Laboratories

• Was based on Einstein’s idea of the “particlewave

duality” of light, more than 30 years earlier
• Originally called MASER (m = “microwave”)
 Laser: everywhere in your life

Laser printer Laser pointer

 What is Laser?
Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation
• A device produces a coherent beam of
optical radiation by stimulating electronic,
ionic, or molecular transitions to higher
energy levels
• When they return to lower energy levels by
stimulated emission, they emit energy.
 Properties of Laser
 The light emitted from a laser is monochromatic, that is, it is of one
color/wavelength. In contrast, ordinary white light is a combination of many
colors (or wavelengths) of light.

 Lasers emit light that is highly directional, that is, laser light is emitted as
a relatively narrow beam in a specific direction. Ordinary light, such as
from a light bulb, is emitted in many directions away from the source.

 The light from a laser is said to be coherent, which means that the
wavelengths of the laser light are in phase in space and time. Ordinary
light can be a mixture of many wavelengths.

These three properties of laser light are what can make it more
hazardous than ordinary light. Laser light can deposit a lot of energy
within a small area.

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 Monochromacity

Nearly monochromatic light

Example:
He-Ne Laser Comparison of the wavelengths of red and
λ0 = 632.5 nm blue light
Δλ = 0.2 nm
Diode Laser
λ0 = 900 nm
Δλ = 10 nm
 Directionality

Conventional light source Divergence angle (θd)

Beam divergence: θd= β λ /D
β ~ 1 = f(type of light amplitude distribution, definition of beam diameter)
λ = wavelength
D = beam diameter
 Coherence

Incoherent light waves Coherent light waves

 Incandescent vs. Laser Light

1. Many wavelengths 1. Monochromatic

2. Multidirectional 2. Directional
3. Incoherent 3. Coherent

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 Basic concepts for a laser
• Absorption

• Spontaneous Emission

• Stimulated Emission

• Population inversion
 Absorption

• Energy is absorbed by an atom, the electrons

are excited into vacant energy shells.
 Spontaneous Emission

• The atom decays from level 2 to level 1 through

the emission of a photon with the energy hv. It is
a completely random process.
 Stimulated Emission

atoms in an upper energy level can be triggered

or stimulated in phase by an incoming photon of
a specific energy.
 Stimulated Emission
The stimulated photons have unique properties:

– In phase with the incident photon

– Same wavelength as the incident photon

– Travel in same direction as incident photon

 Population Inversion
• A state in which a substance has been
energized, or excited to specific energy levels.
• More atoms or molecules are in a higher excited
state.
• The process of producing a population inversion
is called pumping.
• Examples:
→by lamps of appropriate intensity
→by electrical discharge
Pumping

•Optical: flashlamps and high-energy light sources

•Electrical: application of a potential difference across
the laser medium
•Semiconductor: movement of electrons in
“junctions,” between “holes”
Two level system

E2 E2

hn hn
hn

hn =E2-E1
E1 E1

absorption Spontaneous Stimulated

emission
emission
 Boltzmann’s equation
E2

n2  ( E2  E1 ) 
 exp  
E1
n1  kT 
example: T=3000 K E2-E1=2.0
• n1 - the number of electrons of energy E1 eV
• n2 - the number of electrons of energy E2 n2 4
 4.4 10
•Population inversion- n1
n2>>n1
 Resonance Cavities
and Longitudinal
Modes
Since the wavelengths involved with lasers and
masers spread over small ranges, and are also
absolutely small, most cavities will achieve
lengthwise resonance
L = nλ Plane
Hemifocal
parallel f resonator
resonator
c
Concentric Hemispheric
resonator
c
al resonator
f Confocal Unstable
resonator resonator
c: center of curvature, f: focal point
Transverse
Modes

Due to boundary conditions and

quantum mechanical wave
equations

TEM00:
I(r) = (2P/πd2)*exp(-2r2/d2)
(d is spot size measured
to the 1/e2 points)
 Einstein’s coefficients
E2
Probability of stimulated absorption R1-2

R1-2 = r (n) B1-2 E1

Probability of stimulated and spontaneous emission :

R2-1 = r (n) B2-1 + A2-1

assumption: n1 atoms of energy e 1 and n2 atoms of energy e 2 are in thermal

equilibrium at temperature T with the radiation of spectral density r (n):

n1 R1-2 = n2 R2-1 n1r (n) B1-2 = n2 (r (n) B2-1 + A2-1)

A21 / B21
r n  =
n1 B12
1
n2 B21
 n1
According to Boltzman statistics:  exp( E2  E1 ) / kT  exp(hn / kT )
n2

A21 / B21 8hn 3 / c 3

r (n) = =
B1 2 hn exp(hn / kT )  1
exp( )  1
B21 kT

Planck’s law

A21 8hn 3

B1-2/B2-1 = 1

B21 c3
The probability of spontaneous emission A2-1 /the probability of
stimulated emission B2-1r(n :

A21
 exp(hn / kT )  1
B21r (n )

1. Visible photons, energy: 1.6eV – 3.1eV.

2. kT at 300K ~ 0.025eV.

3. stimulated emission dominates solely when hn /kT <<1!

(for microwaves: hn <0.0015eV)

The frequency of emission acts to the absorption:

n2 A21  n2 B21r (n ) A21 n2 n2
x  [1  ] 
n1B1 2 r (n ) B21r (n ) n1 n1

if hn /kT <<1. x~ n2/n1

Condition for the laser operation E2

E1
If n1 > n2

• radiation is mostly absorbed absorbowane

• spontaneous radiation dominates.
if n2 >> n1 - population inversion
• most atoms occupy level E2, weak absorption

• stimulated emission prevails

• light is amplified

Necessary condition:
population inversion
 How to realize the population inversion?

Thermal excitation: E2

n2  E 
 exp  
n1  kT  E1

impossible.

The system has to be „pumped”

Optically,
electrically.