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An optical fiber consists of a core and cladding, with the core having a higher index of refraction than the cladding. This causes light entering the core to undergo total internal reflection and be guided along the fiber. Optical fibers have advantages over copper cables like greater bandwidth, lower loss, immunity to crosstalk, and no electrical hazards. Fiber optic communication systems use sources like LEDs and lasers to transmit light through the fiber, which is then detected using photodetectors.

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Kulvinder Singh
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245 views

Ofc

An optical fiber consists of a core and cladding, with the core having a higher index of refraction than the cladding. This causes light entering the core to undergo total internal reflection and be guided along the fiber. Optical fibers have advantages over copper cables like greater bandwidth, lower loss, immunity to crosstalk, and no electrical hazards. Fiber optic communication systems use sources like LEDs and lasers to transmit light through the fiber, which is then detected using photodetectors.

Uploaded by

Kulvinder Singh
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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OPTICAL FIBRE

Submitted by : Submitted to:


Lt Kulvinder Singh A/Prof Bharti katiyar
Lt Himanshu Tomar
Lt Gautam Sihag
Lt Kunwar Vikram Singh
Introduction
 An optical fiber is essentially a waveguide for light
 It consists of a core and cladding that surrounds the core
 The index of refraction of the cladding is less than that of the core,
causing rays of light leaving the core to be refracted back into the
core
 A light-emitting diode (LED) or laser diode (LD) can be used for the
source
 Advantages of optical fiber include:
 Greater bandwidth than copper
 -Lower loss
 Immunity to crosstalk
 No electrical hazard
FIBRE OPTICS TECHNOLOGY

 Sources
 Transmission medium
 Detectors
Optical Fiber & Communications
System
Optical Fiber
 Optical fiber is made from thin strands of either
glass or plastic
 It has little mechanical strength, so it must be
enclosed in a protective jacket
 Often, two or more fibers are enclosed in the
same cable for increased bandwidth and
redundancy in case one of the fibers breaks
 It is also easier to build a full-duplex system
using two fibers, one for transmission in each
direction
Total Internal Reflection
 Optical fibers work on the principle of total
internal reflection
 With light, the refractive index is listed
 The angle of refraction at the interface
between two media is governed by Snell’s
law:
n1 sin 1  n2 sin 2
Refraction & Total Internal Reflection
Numerical Aperture
 The numerical aperture of the
fiber is closely related to the
critical angle and is often used in
the specification for optical fiber
and the components that work
with it
 The numerical aperture is given
by the formula:

N . A.  n  n
2
1
2
2
 The angle of acceptance is twice
that given by the numerical
aperture
Modes and Materials
 Since optical fiber is a waveguide, light can propagate in a
number of modes
 If a fiber is of large diameter, light entering at different angles
will excite different modes while narrow fiber may only excite
one mode
 Multimode propagation will cause dispersion, which results in
the spreading of pulses and limits the usable bandwidth
 Single-mode fiber has much less dispersion but is more
expensive to produce. Its small size, together with the fact
that its numerical aperture is smaller than that of multimode
fiber, makes it more difficult to couple to light sources
Types of Fiber
 Both types of fiber described earlier are known as step-index fibers
because the index of refraction changes radically between the core and
the cladding
 Graded-index fiber is a compromise multimode fiber, but the index of
refraction gradually decreases away from the center of the core
 Graded-index fiber has less dispersion than a multimode step-index fiber
Dispersion
 Dispersion in fiber optics results from the fact that in multimode
propagation, the signal travels faster in some modes than it would
in others
 Single-mode fibers are relatively free from dispersion except for
intramodal dispersion
 Graded-index fibers reduce dispersion by taking advantage of
higher-order modes
 One form of intramodal dispersion is called material dispersion
because it depends upon the material of the core
 Another form of dispersion is called waveguide dispersion
 Dispersion increases with the bandwidth of the light source
Examples of Dispersion
Losses
 Losses in optical fiber result from attenuation in the material
itself and from scattering, which causes some light to strike
the cladding at less than the critical angle
 Bending the optical fiber too sharply can also cause losses by
causing some of the light to meet the cladding at less than
the critical angle
 Losses vary greatly depending upon the type of fiber
 Plastic fiber may have losses of several hundred dB per kilometer
 Graded-index multimode glass fiber has a loss of about 2–4 dB
per kilometer
 Single-mode fiber has a loss of 0.4 dB/km or less
Types of Losses
Fiber-Optic Cables
 There are two basic types of fiber-optic cable
 The difference is whether the fiber is free to move inside a
tube with a diameter much larger than the fiber or is inside a
relatively tight-fitting jacket
 They are referred to as loose-tube and tight-buffer
cables
 Both methods of construction have advantages
 Loose-tube cables—all the stress of cable pulling is taken up
by the cable’s strength members and the fiber is free to
expand and contract with temperature
 Tight-buffer cables are cheaper and generally easier to use
Fiber-Optic Cable
Construction
Splices and Connectors
 In fiber-optic systems, the losses from splices and connections can be more than
in the cable itself
 Losses result from:
 Axial or angular misalignment
 Air gaps between the fibers
 Rough surfaces at the ends of the fibers
Fiber-Optic Connectors
 Coupling the fiber to sources and
detectors creates losses as well,
especially when it involves
mismatches in numerical
aperture or in the size of optical
fibers
 Good connections are more
critical with single-mode fiber,
due to its smaller diameter and
numerical aperture
 A splice is a permanent
connection and a connector is
removable
Optical Couplers and Switches
 As with coaxial cable and
microwave waveguides, it is
possible to build power splitters
and directional couplers for
fiber-optic systems
 It is more complex and
expensive to do this with fiber
than with copper wire
 Optical couplers are categorized
as either star couples with
multiple inputs and outputs or
as tees, which have one input
and two outputs
Coupler Construction

 Optical couplers can be made in many different


ways:
A number of fibers can be fused together to make a
transmissive coupler
A reflective coupler allows a signal entering on any
fiber to exit on all other fibers, so the coupler is
bidirectional
Optical Switches and Relays
 Occasionally, it is necessary to switch
optical signals from one fiber to another
 The simplest type of optical switch moves
fibers so that an input fiber can be
positioned next to the appropriate output
fiber
 Another approach is direct the incoming
light into a prism, which reflects it into
the outgoing fiber. By moving the prism,
the light can be switched between
different output fibers
 Lenses are necessary with this approach to
avoid excessive loss of light
Optical Emitters

 Optical emitters operate on the idea that


electromagnetic energy can only appear
in a discrete amount known as a
quantum. These quanta are called
photons when the energy is radiated
 Energy in one photon varies directly with
the frequency
 Typical optical emitters include:
 Light-Emitting Diodes
 Laser Diodes
Light-Emitting Diodes

 An LED is form of junction diode that is operated with forward bias


 Instead of generating heat at the PN junction, light is generated and
passes through an opening or lens
 LEDs can be visible spectrum or infrared
Laser Diodes

 Laser diodes generate coherent,


intense light of a very narrow
bandwidth
 A laser diode has an emission
linewidth of about 2 nm, compared
to 50 nm for a common LED
 Laser diodes are constructed much
like LEDs but operate at higher
current levels
Laser Diode Construction
Optical Detectors
 The most common optical detector used with fiber-optic systems is
the PIN diode
 The PIN diode is operated in the reverse-bias mode
 As a photodetector, the PIN diode takes advantage of its wide depletion
region, in which electrons can create electron-hole pairs
 The low junction capacitance of the PIN diode allows for very fast
switching
ADVANTAGES

 Can carry much more information


 Much higher data rates
 Much longer distances than co-axial cables
 Immune to electromagnetic noise
 Light in weight
 Unaffected by atmospheric agents

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