UNDERSTANDING

LEARNING
DISABILITIES
Reporter: Kristine P. Pasigian
LEARNING DISABILITY
 Refer to a number of disorders, which
may affect the acquisition, organization,
retention, understanding, or use of
verbal and non-verbal information.

 Resultfrom impairments from one or

more processes related to perceiving,
thinking, remembering or learning.
LEARNING DISABILITY
 May interfere with the acquisition and use of
one or more of the ff:
 oral language

 reading

 written language

 mathematics

o May involve in difficulties with organizational

skill, social interaction, and perspective taking.
o Are lifelong.
o Due to genetic and/or neurobiiological processes
or injury.
LEARNING DISABILITIES AND SPECIFIC SUBTYPES
READING DISABILITY
 A difficulty in reading skills that are unexpected in
relation to age, cognitive ability, quantity and quality
of instruction and intervention.

 Characteristics:
 Difficulties in single word reading;

 Initial difficulties decoding and sounding out

words;
 Difficulties in reading sight words;

 Insufficient phonological processing;

 Expressive or receptive language difficulties; and

 Difficulties with comprehension.

WRITTEN EXPRESSION DISORDER
 Difficulty in using writing to communicate meaning.

 Characteristics:
Have trouble in formulating sentences, organizing
paragraphs, using correct grammar and
punctuation.
Difficulty in generating ideas to write about and
can be slow to get their thoughts on paper.
Their writing may be disorganized and incoherent
and have may display excessive poor handwriting.
Ability to spell is often poorly developed.
MATHEMATICS DISORDER
 Problems with language component of
mathematics: understanding concepts, decoding
written problems into mathematical symbol, and
following sequence of steps.

 Characteristics:
 Difficulty in time recalling and understanding
basic facts and often cannot remember the
multiplication table.
 Difficulty in reading mathematical signs and
copying numbers and figures correctly.
NONVERBAL LEARNING DISABILITY

 Strengths:
 Using words in an adult fashion
 Large vocabularies
 Well-developed verbal skills
 Auditory perception
 Simple motor skills; and
 Memorizing information
NONVERBAL LEARNING DISABILITY

 Difficulty with:
 Interpreting and comprehending
nonverbal cues;
 The functional use of language;
 Social perception, judgement and
interaction
 Spatial orientation
 Motor coordination
 Organizing materials
NONVERBAL LEARNING DISABILITY

 Difficultywith:
 Encountering new information,
situations and/or transitions
 Seeing the big picture;
 A logical sense of time.
CONTRIBUTORY FACTORS TO LEARNING
DISBILITIES:
1. Neurobiological Differences
-there are subtle structural and functional
differences in individuals with learning disabilities.

2. Genetic Factors
-Genetic markers for reading disabilities have been
identified on chromosomes 6 and 15.

3. Other Risk Factors

-problems during pregnancy caused by tobacco,
alcohol and/or other drugs.
DIAGNOSIS OF LEARNING DISABILITIES
 Learning disabilities have a neurobiological basis.

 Learning disabilities are not due to:

 Sensory impairment; physical challenges, cognitive
disabilities
 Emotional disturbance

 Environmental influence

 Cultural or language differences

DIAGNOSIS OF LEARNING DISABILITIES
 The purpose of a diagnosis is to better understand
the abilities and needs of students and to better
inform instruction.

 Discrepancy Model-has been used to make the

diagnosis of a learning disability.
-the discrepancy is based on results from
intelligence and academic achievement tests.
CONCERNS OF THE DISCREPANCY MODEL

 It is unclear which IQ score should be used with

the achievement test to establish discrepancy.
 There is no universal agreement as to what the
discrepancy should be based.
 The discrepancy formula has been inconsistently
interpreted and/or misinterpreted.
 It promoted “wait and fail” policy that delays
interventions.
 Research shows that intelligence test scores may
decrease over time with children who are not
reading.
 Purpose of assessment should be early
identification of students who are at risk for
having difficulties learning to read.
 The ultimate goal should be prevention of
reading problems and the provision of early
intervention for students who are experiencing
difficulties.
DATA TO BE USED:

 Students’ family and school history;

 Attendance records;

 Type of instruction received;

 Duration of intervention;

 Environmetal factors;

 Other aspects ( trauma, ADHD,etc.)

IMPORTANCE OF DIAGNOSIS
 It provides teachers and parents with specific
information about an individual, and guides
appropriate intervention
 It verifies that a student has a disability and is
not just lazy or not trying hard enough.
 May enhance the individual’s understanding of
their disability.
 May also give students access to many services
and programs
SKILL AREAS ASSOCIATED WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

RECEPTIVE
AND AUDITORY/
EXPRESSIVE PHONOLOG
SOCIAL LANGUAGE ICAL
SKILLS PROCESSIN
G

STUDY AND
ORGANIZATI LEARNING VISUAL
PROCESSIN
ONAL G
SKILLS DISABILITIES

METACOGNI ATTENTION
TION
MEMORY
RECEPTIVE AND EXPRESSIVE
LANGUAGE SKILLS:
LISTENING AND SPEAKING
 ASSOCIATED AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:
 -EXPRESSIVE WORDS IN SPEECH;
 -EXPLAINING IDEAS; VOCABULARY;
 -USING CONNECTING
 -UNDERSTANDING IDIOMS AND FIGURATIVE
LANGUAGE;
 -UNDERSTANDING MULTIPLE MEANING OF
WORDS;
 UNDERSTANDING AND USING COMPOUND AND
COMPLEX SENTENCE STRUCTURES;
 -TELLING A STORY OR INCIDENCE IN
SEQUENCE;
 -THE PRAGMATICS ASPECT OF LANGUAGE.
BACK
 AUDITORY/PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING:

A. PERCEPTION

ASSOCIATED AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:

 PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING;

 ACQUIRING PHONEMIC AWARENESS

SKILLS;
 IDENTIFYING INITIAL, MEDIAL AND
FINAL SOUNDS IN WORDS; AND
 ARTICULATION
 AUDITORY/PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING:

B. DISCRIMINATION

ASSOCIATED AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:

 DISCRIMINATING SIMILAR SOUNDING
LETTERS
EX. (/b/ and /p/; /f/ and /v/)
Hearing the differences in words such as
/bat/,/bit/,/bet/.
 AUDITORY/PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING:

C. CLOSURE-BLENDING SOUNDS

ASSOCIATED AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:

 BLENDING AND SEGMENTING SOUNDS
AND/OR SYLLABLES WITHIN WORDS;
AND
 READING NONWORDS
 AUDITORY/PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING:

D. FIGURE-GROUND ( FIGURING
TEACHER’S VOICE) AND IGNORING
BACKGROUND SOUNDS.

ASSOCIATED AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:

 RESPONDING TO ORAL QUESTIONS;

 TAKING NOTES;

 RECALLING NAMES OF OBJECTS,

LETTERS AND NUMBERS.
 AUDITORY/PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING:

E. MEMORY

ASSOCIATED AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:

 MASTERING THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES
OF GRAPHEME/PHONEME ASSOCIATION
 AUDITORY/PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING:

F. SEQUENTIAL MEMORY

ASSOCIATED AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:

 REMEMBERING THE ORDER OF SOUNDS I
WORDS ( FLYBUTTER FOR A BUTTERFLY )
 IMITATING OR PRONOUNCING MULTI-
SYLLABIC WORDS
 PROCESSING AND SEQUENCING THE
INFORMATION HEARD

BACK
 VISUAL PROCESSING:

A. PERCEPTION

ASSOCIATED AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:

 IDENTIFYING LETTERS AND NUMBERS
 ATTENDING TO SIGNS IN MATH

B. DICRIMINATION
ASSOCIATED AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:
 REVERSING LETTERS OR NUMBERS AFTER
THE AGE OF SEVEN ( b/d)
 TRANSPOSING ( SAW/WAS)
 INVERTING LETTERS( W/M)
 VISUAL PROCESSING:
C. CLOSURE
ASSOCIATED AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:
 LEARNING HOW TO FORM LETTERS
 FORMING LETTERS CORRECTLY

D. FIGURE-GROUND
ASSOCIATED AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:
 COPYING FROM THE BOARD AND/OR
TEXTBOOK;
 TRACKING;
 COMPLETING AND/OR USING ANSWER
SHEET;
 LOCATING SPECIFIC WORDS ON A PAGE OR
DICTIONARY
 VISUAL PROCESSING:

E. MEMORY
ASSOCIATED AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:
 REMEMBERING HOW LETTERS LOOK

 REMEMBERING BASIC SIGHT WORDS

F. SEQUENTIAL-MEMORY
ASSOCIATED AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:
 REMEMBERING LETTER SEQUENCES

 SPELLING

 WRITING AT AN APPROPRIATE RATE

BACK
ATTENTION

A. FOCUSING ATTENTION
ASSOCIATED AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:
 SETTLING DOWN AFTER RECESS AND
GETTING BACK TO WORK;
 AVOIDING DAYDREMING;

 REMAINING FOCUSED; AND

 STARTING TASKS.
ATTENTION

B. SELECTIVE ATTENTION

ASSOCIATED AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:

 SELECTING RELEVANT STIMULUS

C. SUSTAINING ATTENTION
ASSOCIATED AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:
 COMPLETING ASSIGNMENT;
 ATTENDING FOR AN EXTENDED PERIOD
OF TIME
 FOLLOWING INSTRUCTIONS
ATTENTION

D. DIVIDING ATTENTION

ASSOCIATED AREAS OF DIFFICULTY:

 LISTENING TO THE TEACHER AND
TAKING NOTES AT THE SAME TIME
 LISTENING TO ISNTRUCTIONS AND
COMPLETING TASKS AT THE SAME TIME
 ORGANIZING MATERIALS, ACTIVITIES,
TIME
 REMMEBERING INSTRUCTIONS

BACK
MEMORY
 ASSOCIATED DIFFICULTIES:
 -recalling what was just read

 Recalloing rote information

 Memorizing poems, songs and passages

 Remembering familiar material but forgetting

important details
 Retrieving information quickly

 Timed tasks ( oral or written )

METACOGNITION
 A. ACTIVE CONTROL, COORDINATION AND
MONITORING OF LEARNING PROCESSES AND
STRATEGIES

 ASSOCIATED DIFFICULTIES
-defining problems;
-sorting relevant from irrelevant information;
Generating alternative approaches to problem solving;
Changing approaches when one doesn’t work;
Actively using strategies;
Drawing onpast knowledge and experience to solve new tasks;
Making predictions;
Self-monitorng
Organizing thougths and ideas;
Being flexible; and evaluating performance
STUDY AND ORGANIZATIONAL SKILLS
 A. Metacognitive and Attention Skills
Associated areas of difficulty:
• Organizing materials and work environment;
• Keeping track of assignments and/or materials;
• Bringing assignments home or back to school;
• Being punctual and/or keeping assignments;
• Completing highly structured work ( essay );
• Prioritizing;
• Judging and managing time;
• Planning and scheduling; and using strategies
for studying and test-taking.
SOCIAL SKILLS
A. Paralinguistic Skills
Associated areas of difficulty:
• Interpreting auditory cues such as pitch,
intensity, and rate of speech;
B. Nonverbal Communication Skills
Associated areas of difficulty:
• Interpreting facial expressions, body
language, gestures and proximity;
C. Attention Skills
Associated areas of difficulty:
• Maintaining when interacting with others
SOCIAL SKILLS
D. Pragmatic Language Skills
Associated areas of difficulty:
• Following a conversation and responding in
an appropriate manner;
• Taking the perspective of another person;
• Repairing communication breakdo
E. Self-Concept
Associated areas of difficulty:
• Maintaining positive self-esteem;
• Not submitting to peer pressure;
• Taking risks; and
• Not becoming too passive or aggressive
METACOGNITION
 B.GENERALIZING AND TRANSFER
 ASSOCIATED DIFFICULTIES

Applying previously learned information to new

situations-generalizing and building bridges
between past and present learning
Developing an adequate degree of original learning;
Identifying the critical and relevant features of a
situation;
Identifying similarities among environments,
actions and feelings; and
Associating between two learnings.
SOCIAL SKILLS
F. Impulse Control
Associated areas of difficulty:
• Controlling emtions
G. Metacognitive Skills
Associated areas of difficulty:
• Solving social problems;

• Generalizing or modifying social skills that

have been learned;
• Adaoting t and

• Not becoming too passive or aggressive