chapter one

BASIC OF HYDROLOGY

By
Mohammed Azmi Bin Ladi
Jabatan Kejuruteraan Awam
Politeknik Kuching Sarawak
BASIC OF HYDROLOGY
1.1 Understand the concept of hydrology and hydrological cycle
1.1.1 Define the concept of hydrology.
1.1.2 Explain the hydrological cycle and the process in
hydrological cycle, evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
surface runoff, interception, transpiration, infiltration and
sub-surface runoff.
1.1.3 Recognise the effect of soils use toward hydrological cycle.
1.1.4 Explain the hydrology continuity equation and calculate the
waterbalance.
the concept of hydrology

Hydrology
Hydrology is the physical science which treats the waters of the Earth, their
occurance, circulation and distribution, their chemical and physical properties, and
their reaction with the enviroment, including their relation to living things.
(UNESCO, 1979)

 Is the science of water that deals with the occurrence, circulation, and
distribution of water on the earth, under the ground, and in the
atmosphere.
 Studied by scientists – pure science – wish to understand the physical
world and to discover what happens and why it happens.
 Studied by engineers – applied science – interested to apply the
kowledge and principles of hydrology for engineering applications.
the concept of hydrology

Catchment
 A portion of the earth’s surface that collects runoff and concentrates it
at furthest downstream point, known as the catchment outlet.
 Watershed – used for small catchment
 Basin – used for large catchment
the concept of hydrology

Hydrological Cycle
A continuous process of water movement in various forms, phases and
places between the atmosphere, the land, and the oceans.
The actual process is very complex, containing many sub-cycles
without any beginning or ending.
In this respect, we may consider the oceans as the major sources of
water, the atmosphere as the conveyer of water, and the land as the
user of water.
the concept of hydrology

Hydrological Cycle
In brief, it can be explained that water evaporates from the oceans
surface, driven by energy from the sun, and joins the atmosphere,
moving inland. Once inland, atmospheric conditions act to condense
and precipitate water onto the land surface, where, driven by
gravitational forces, it returns back to the ocean through streams and
rivers.
The components of hydrological cycle include :-
1. Precipitation
2. Evaporation
3. Condensation
4. Transpiration
5. Infiltration
6. Surface runoff
7. Interception
8. Sub-surface runoff
 the hydrological cycle
Condensation

Precipitation
Evapotranspiration Evaporation

Interception

Ocean
Infiltration

Precipitation
Evaporation/ET
Surface Water
Groundwater
the hydrological cycle

Major Processes of the Hydrological Cycle

 Evaporation and Precipitation
 There is more evaporation than precipitation over the surface of the
Earth’s oceans.
 There is more precipitation than evaporation over the surface of the
Earth’s continents
the process in hydrological cycle

 The 8 components of hydrological cycle include :-

1. Precipitation
2. Evaporation
3. Condensation
4. Transpiration
5. Infiltration
6. Surface runoff
7. Interception
8. Sub-surface runoff
Ev a p o r a t i o n
 The sun (temperature) is the energy
force that powers the water cycle
 It heats oceans, lakes, rivers and
causes water to change from the
liquid state to the gaseous state
 The oceans contribute to about 80-
90% of the water vapor in the
atmosphere.
 During evaporation, the impurities
(for example, Salt) are left behind.
 This is important because about 97%
of the water on Earth is salt water
(oceans) and only 3% is freshwater
(rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, and in
the ground).
Condensation
 When atmospheric temperature
decreases, the water vapor (gas)
changes back into a liquid.
 Condensation is the opposite of
evaporation.
 Small water droplets are formed in
the atmosphere.
 Collections of water droplets form
clouds in the sky or fog at ground
level.
 You can see condensation on drinks in
the summertime or leaves in the
morning.
Precipitation
 Tiny water droplets bounce around
in a cloud and as they hit each other,
they stick together and become
larger.
 The clouds get heavy and eventually
water falls back to the Earth.
 Precipitation can occur in the form
of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, or
hail.
 Most precipitation falls back into the
oceans or onto land. If precipitation
falls in the form of snow it can
accumulate in the form of ice caps
or glaciers.
 Most of the condensed water in
clouds does not actually fall as
precipitation.
Infiltration
 Not all surface runoff water flows
back into streams, rivers, lakes, and
oceans. Some of it soaks into the
ground.
 Infiltration is the downward
movement of water from the land
surface into soil or underlying rock
layers.
 This water can replenish aquifers,
which store large amounts of
freshwater that can be removed
from the ground using a water well.
 Some infiltration stays close to the
land surface and can seep back into
surface-water bodies (and the
ocean) as groundwater discharge.
 Some groundwater finds openings in
the land surface and comes out as
freshwater springs.
Tr a n s p i r a t i o n
 Water is returned to the atmosphere
by plants.
 Water is absorbed by plants (usually
through the roots) from water that is
in the soil.
 The water travels up through the
plant and then is evaporated back
into the atmosphere from the plant
surface (usually the leaves).
Surface Runoff
 About 1/3 of the water that returns
to the Earth as precipitation runs off
the surface of the land, down hill,
into streams, rivers, lakes, and
oceans.
 The other 2/3 of precipitation is
evaporated, transpired, or is
infiltrated into ground water.
 Surface Runoff is a very important
part of the water cycle because it
returns water once again to the
bodies of water, where evaporation
occurs.
Interception
 Interception is the process of
interrupting the movement of water
in the chain of transportation events
leading to streams.
 Interception is the part of the
rainfall that is intercepted by the
earth’s surface and which
subsequently evaporates.
 It includes: vegetation, soil surface,
litter, build-up surface, etc.
Sub-surface Runoff
 Subsurface runoff, also known as
interflow is relatively rapid flow
toward the stream channel that
occurs below the surface.
 It occurs more rapidly than baseflow,
but typically more slowly than
surface runoff.
the effect of soils use toward hydrological
cycle
 Increased volume and velocity of runoff
 Increased frequency and severity of flooding
 Peak (storm) flows many times greater than in natural basins
 Loss of natural runoff storage capacity in vegetation, wetlands and soil
 Reduced groundwater recharge
 Decreased baseflow (the ground water contribution to stream flow). This can
result in stream becoming intermittent or dry and also affects water
temperature
 Decreased infiltration and percolation
 Decreased transpiration
the hydrological equation
the water budget equation
Units of Measurement
 All hydrological date are recorded based on certain units of measurement so
that they can be easily interpreted.
Data Characteristic Units of Measurement
Precipitation Depth cm or mm
Intensity cm/h or mm/h
Duration hours
Evaporation Rate cm per day, month, or year
Infiltration Rate cm per hour
Depth cm or mm
Runoff Discharge m3/s or cumecs
Volume hectare.cm or m3
Equivalent depth equivalent cm over catchment area
Please Answer Question 1
The total global water supply is estimated to be 1.36 x 109 km3. Convert these
quantities of water into km2.m, cubic meters, liters, cubic feet, and cubic
miles.
A n s w e r To T h e Q u e s t i o n 1
The total global water supply is estimated to be 1.36 x 109 km3. Convert these
quantities of water into km2.m, cubic meters, liters, cubic feet, and cubic
miles.
Wa t e r B u d g e t E q u a t i o n
 The hydrologist must be able to estimate components of hydrologic cycle in
order to design projects and, more importantly protect the public from
excessive floods and draughts.
 This can be accomplished by careful accounting technique that is not unlike
keeping track of money in the bank.

 In engineering hydrology, the hydrologic budget is a quantitative accounting

technique linking the components of hydrologic cycle.
 It is a form of a continuity equation that balances the gains and losses of water
with the amount stored in a region.
 The components of water budget are inflow, outflow and storage.

 INFLOWS -  OUTFLOWS =  STORAGES

Wa t e r B u d g e t E q u a t i o n
 Water budget equation is used to describe the components in (input) and
components out (output) of the hydrological system for catchment area.
 Measuring the amount of water coming in and going out to assess availability.
 It is mathematical expression of the hydrological cycle.

I – O = ∆s
 Where I is input, O is output, and ∆s is change in storage

(P+R+B)–(F+ET+Q) = ∆s
 Where ∆s is the change in storage, P is precipitation, R is surface runoff, B is
sub-surface runoff, F is infiltration, ET is evapotranspiration, and Q is stream
flow .
Wa t e r B u d g e t E q u a t i o n
 Assuming that, change in storage, ΔS = 0 or no change in storage in a given
time span, then the equation becomes :-

(P+R+B)–(F+ET+Q) = 0
 All terms appear in the water budget equation are expressed in units of water
depth, meaning a water volume uniformly distributed over the catchment
area.
 The ratio of runoff and precipitation is called runoff coefficient and it’s written
as :

C = R/P
 Where C is runoff coefficient, P is precipitation, and R is surface runoff @
effective rainfall.
Please Answer Question 2
Find the water balance equation based on the diagram below.
Please Answer Question 2
Find the water balance equation based on the diagram below.
Example
1. In a given year, a 10,000 km2 watershed received 30 cm of precipitation. The
annual rate of flow measured in the river draining the area is 60 m3/sec.
Estimate the evapotranspiration. Assume negligible change of storage and net
groundwater flow.
2. The drainage area of a river in a city is 11,839 km2. If the mean annual runoff
is determined to be 144.4 m3/s and the average annual rainfall is 1.08 m,
estimate the ET losses for the area. Assume negligible changes in
groundwater flow and storage (i.e. G and ΔS = 0).
Answer
1. In a given year, a 10,000 km2 watershed received 30 cm of precipitation. The
annual rate of flow measured in the river draining the area is 60 m3/sec.
Estimate the evapotranspiration. Assume negligible change of storage and net
groundwater flow.
Answer
1. The drainage area of a river in a city is 11,839 km2. If the mean annual runoff
is determined to be 144.4 m3/s and the average annual rainfall is 1.08 m,
estimate the ET losses for the area. Assume negligible changes in
groundwater flow and storage (i.e. G and ΔS = 0).
 There are more question to be solved.
Please answer the question before the
next class.