MEDICAL ELECTRONICS

Mr. G. SURESH
Senior Assistant Professor
ECE Department

1
 UNIT 1

Introduction to Human
Physiological Systems and
Transducers

2
 Objective
At the end of this Unit
You will learn
Physiological Systems of
human body
Bio medical Transducers
and Electrodes

3
 Introduction to Biomedical
Engineering

4
 Biomedical Engineering
Biomedical Engineering is the application of engineering
principles and design concepts to medicine and biology

The biomedical engineering provides electrical, electronic,

electro-optical, and computer engineering support to clinical
and biomedical applications.

Biomedical Engineering improves the field of healthcare

diagnosis, monitoring and therapy.

5
 Medical Instruments

6
 Biomedical Instruments
Classification of Biomedical Equipments

1. Diagnostic equipment
2. Therapeutic equipment
3. Clinical equipment
4. Laboratory equipment

7
 Man- Instrument System

8
 Components in Man – Instrument system

Control feedback

Transducer Signal
conditioning Display
Stimulus

Transducer equipment

Transducer

Recording , data
processing and
transmission of data
9
 Man – Instrument system
Measurement in biomedical instrumentation can be divided
in to two
1.VIVO
•Measurement is made on or within the human body

•Eg . Device inserted in to the blood stream to measure PH of blood

2.VITRO
•Measurement is performed outside of the body.

•Eg . Measurement of blood PH from blood samples.

10
 Bioelectric Potentials

11
 Sources of Bioelectric potentials
 The systems in the human body generate their on
monitoring signals when they carry out their functions.

 These signals provide useful information about their

function.

 Bioelectric potentials are actually ionic voltages produced

as a result of electro chemical activity of certain cell.

 Transducers are used to convert these ionic potentials in to

electrical signals

12
 Resting and Action potentials
 Certain types of cells within the body , such as nerve and
muscle cells are encased in a semi permeable membrane.

 This membrane permits some substances to pass through

while others are kept out.

 Surrounding the cells of the body are the body fluids

 These fluids are conductive solutions containing charged

atoms known as ions

13
 Resting potentials
 The principle ions are sodium(Na+) Potassium(K+)
and chloride(C-)

 The membrane of excitable cells permit entry of

Potassium(K+) and chloride(C-) ions but blocks
the entry of sodium(Na+) ions.
 So inside the cell is more negative than outside
cell

 This membrane potentials is called Resting

potentials

 This potential is measured from inside the cell

with respect to body fluids.
14
 So resting potential of a cell is negative.
 Resting potentials/Polarization
 This resting potential ranging from -60mv to -100 mv.
 Cell in the resting state is called polarized cell.

Cell Membrane

V -70 mV

Ground
15
 Depolarization of cell
When a cell is exited, the membrane
change its characteristic.

The sodium ions are rushed in to the

cell.

At the same time potassium ions try

move from inside.

After a equilibrium state is reached, the

sodium is moved back to outside
16
 Depolarization of cell

Na+
Na+
Cell Membrane
Na +

K+
K+
K+
Na+ K+

K+ Na+
K+

Na+ K+ K+
Na+
Na+

17
 Action potentials

Cell Membrane

V 20 mV

Ground

18
 Re Polarization
 Cell comes from de polarized state in to polarized state is
called Re polarization.

Cell Membrane

V -70 mV

Ground
19
 Resting and Action potentials

20
 Propagation of Action potentials
 When a cell is exited and generates an action potentials
ionic currents to flow.
 This process excite neighboring cells or adjacent area of
the same cell

21
 Physiological Systems in Human
body

22
 Physiological systems of human body
In simple terms "Human Physiology" is the study of
the body and its functions in each of the different
systems in any living body.

Input System Output

23
 Physiological Systems in the Human body
Vision Speech

Appearance
Hearing
Behavior
Smell
Expired air
INPUTS

Taste

Inspired air Body movements

OUTPUTS
Tactile sensation

Liquid intake Liquid wastes

Solid wastes

Food intake

24
 Physiological systems of human body
 There are 11systems in the body:
1. The Skeletal System Bones & joints
2. Muscular System Skeletal muscle
3. Nervous System Brain, spinal cord & nerves
4. Endocrine System Hormone-producing cells & glands
5. Cardiovascular System Blood, heart & blood vessels
6. Respiratory System Lungs & airways
7. Digestive System Organs of the gastrointestinal tract
8. Urinary System Kidneys, bladder and ureters
9. Reproductive System Male & female reproductive organs
10.The Integumentary System The skin & derived structures
11. Lymphatic & Immune System Lymphatic vessels & fluid

25
 Physiology of Cardiovascular
system

26
 Physiology
•Physiology can be classified in to

1.Cell Physiology

• Study of cells
2.Patho Physiology

• Pathological Functions
3.Circulatory Physiology

• Study of blood circulation

4.Respiratory Physiology

• Study of breathing organs

27
 Cardio Vascular system
Cardio vascular system can be viewed as closed hydraulic
system with 4 chamber pump.

Cardio Vascular system is mainly used for

transportation of oxygen, Carbon dioxide,
numerous chemical compounds and the
blood cells.

•Pump-----Heart

•Flexible tubes---Blood vessels

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 Cardio Vascular system
•In some part of the system diameter of the arteries are
changed to control pressure.

•Pump(heart) is a isolated two stage synchronized chamber

1.The first stage is to collect blood from the system and pump
it in to 2nd stage.
2.The second stage then pump these blood to the system

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 Heart & Valves

Bicuspid/
Left Atrio-ventricular valve

Right Atrio-ventricular valve

30 DEEPAK.P
 Heart Layers
Heart wall consists of three layers

1.Pericardium
• Outer most layer, keeps outer surface moist, prevents
friction
2.Myocardium
• Middle layer, Main muscle of heart, made up of short
cylindrical fibres
3.Endocardium
• Inner layer of heart, Provides smooth lining for blood flow

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 Heart Valves
Heart has 4 valves

1.Tricuspid/Right Atrio-Ventricular valve

• Between Right A and V, Prevents blood flow from right V to A

2.Bicuspid/ left Atrio-Ventricular valve

• Between left A and V, Prevents blood flow from left V to A

3.Pulmonary valve
• At right ventricle, It has 3 cusps

4.Aortic Valve
• Between left ventricle and aorta, It has 3 cusps

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 Cardio Vascular systems

33
 Cardio Vascular System
One of the two stage pump(Right side) collect fluid from the
system and pump it through oxygenation system(Lungs).

Other side pump receives blood from oxygenation

system(Lungs) and pump blood to main hydraulic system.

Blood act as communication and supply network for all

parts of the body

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 Cardio Vascular system
Fluid contains fuel suppliers and waste particles are
transported to destination.

Fluid contain mechanism for rejecting foreign elements and

mechanism for repairing small system puncture.

Sensors are provided to detect the changes in the need of

suppliers, the build of waste material and out-of- tolerance
pressure in the system known as chemoreceptors, Pco2
sensors and baroreceptors respectively.


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 Cardio Vascular Circulation
The blood is carried out to the various parts of the body through
blood vessels.

There are three types of blood vessels

1)Arteries--- Thick, Carries oxygenated blood

2)Veins--- Thin, De-oxygenated blood

3)Capillaries---Smallest, Last level of blood vessels, 800000 km

of capillaries

36
 Cardio Vascular Circulation
Heart pumps blood through the pulmonary circulation to the lungs
and through the systemic circulation to the other parts of the body.
1)Pulmonary circulation

2)Systemic circulation

In pulmonary circulation, venous blood(de-oxygenated) flows

from right ventricle through pulmonary artery to lungs .
The arterial( oxygenated) blood flows to left atrium through
pulmonary veins.
In systemic circulation blood flows from left auricle to left
ventricle and it is pumped to aorta and its branches
37
 Cardio Vascular Circulation

38 DEEPAK.P
 Respiratory system

39
 Respiratory systems
It is the Pneumatic system.

A system that work with air pressure.

An air pump(diaphragm) which alternatively create negative

and positive pressures in a sealed chamber(Thoracic cavity).
Thoracic cavity sucked air in to and forced out to two elastic
bags(Lungs).
The lungs are connected to the external environment through a
pass way (nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and
bronchioles)

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 Respiratory systems

41
 Respiratory systems
At one point , this passage is common with the tube that carries
liquid and solids to stomach.

A special valving arrangement interrupts the respiratory system

whenever solid or liquid passes through the common region.

The passage divides to carry air in to each bag.

In each bag , it is sub divided many times to carry air in to and
out of each of many tiny air spaces (pulmonary alveoli).

42
 Respiratory systems
In case of nasal blockage , air input can be taken from mouth.

Oxygen is taken from the air and transferred in to blood.

Cabondioxide is transferred from blood to air.

The system has a number of fixed volumes and capacities.

43
 Respiratory systems
Tidal volume

The volume inspired and expired during each normal breath

Inspiratory reserve volume

Additional volume that can be inspired after a normal

inspiration.

Expiratory reserve volume

Additional volume that can be expired after a normal

expiration.
44
 Respiratory systems
Residual volume

Amount of air remaining in the lungs after all possible air has
been forced out.
Vital capacity

Tidal volume+ Inspiratory reserve volume+ Expiratory reserve

volume

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 Respiratory systems

46
 Blood purification in the human body
 The overall functioning of our body heavily depends on the
proper functioning of our blood.

 We take toxins into our body daily and these toxins

disrupts the functions of our internal organs.

 Regular detoxification of our blood is important

 Detoxifying the blood and body helps to remove harmful

toxins from our body and improve the functioning of our
vital organs such as the kidney and liver


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 Blood purification in the human body
When our body has too much toxins,
our vital organs start to get damage and
under-perform and we start to develop
symptoms of allergies, low immunity,
headaches, fatigue and several other
health related problems.

The lungs help remove carbon

dioxide, the kidneys remove water-
soluble waste and the liver removes
fat soluble wastes and many other
impurities from the blood.
48 DEEPAK.P
 Blood purification by lungs
The un oxygenated (unpurified) blood comes
into right atrium of heart by superior and
inferior vena-cava which then passes to
right ventricle, then to lungs by
pulmonary artery.

In lungs this blood gets oxygenated

(purified) which then goes into left chamber
of heart from which blood is passed to aorta
and then circulated to whole body


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 Blood purification by lungs


50
 Blood purification by lungs


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 Muscular System

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 Muscular System
 The muscular system is the biological system of humans that produces movement.

 It permits movement of the body, maintains posture, and circulates blood throughout
the body.

 The muscular system is controlled through the nervous system.

 Muscles provide strength, balance, Posture, movement and heat for the body to keep
warm.

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 Muscular System
• More than 50% of body weight is muscle.

• Muscle is made up of proteins and water

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 Muscular System
 There are three distinct types of muscles: skeletal muscles,
cardiac or heart muscles, and smooth muscles.

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 Muscular System
 Smooth muscle or "involuntary muscle" consists of spindle
shaped muscle cells found within the walls of stomach,
intestines, bronchi, uterus, ureters, bladder, and blood
vessels.

 Smooth muscle cells contain only one nucleus.

 Cardiac muscle is also an "involuntary muscle" but it is

striated in structure and appearance.

 Like smooth muscle, cardiac muscle cells contain only one

nucleus.

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 Muscular System
 Cardiac muscle is found only within the heart.

 Skeletal muscle or "voluntary muscle" is

anchored by tendons to the bone and is used
to effect skeletal movement such as locomotion.

 Skeletal muscle cells are multinucleated with the

nuclei peripherally located.

 Skeletal muscle is called 'striated' because of

the longitudinally striped appearance under
light microscopy.

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 Muscular System
 Muscle is composed of muscle cells (sometimes known as
"muscle fibers").

 Within the cells are myofibrils; myofibrils contain sarcomeres

which are composed of actin and myosin.

 Individual muscle cells are lined with endomysium.

 Muscle cells are bound together by perimysium into bundles

called fascicles.

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 Muscular System
 These bundles are then grouped together to form muscle, and
is lined by epimysium.

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 Muscular System

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 Muscular System

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 Nervous systems

62
 Nervous systems
 The task of controlling various functions of body and
coordinating them in to a integrated living organism(human
body) is the function of Nervous system

 It is the most complex system in the human body

 It is the communication network in the human body.

 It composed of Brain, Sensors, high speed communication

links ,spinal cord.

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 Nervous systems
 It provides regulation of body functions and sensory
perception.

 Functions of Nervous systems

1. Control of the body

2. Integration

3. Communication

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 Nervous systems
 Its center is a self adapting processor(Brain).

 Self adapting means --- If a certain section is damaged, other

sections can adapt take over the function of damaged sections

 This processor has memory, computational power, decision

making capability.

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 Nervous systems
 With the use of this processor , human can take decisions,
solve complex problems, create art, poetry and music, feel
emotions and integrate input information from all parts of
the body and produce output signals of meaningful
information.

 Central computer has millions of communication lines( afferent

and efferent nerves) that bring sensory information and
transfer control information from brain.

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 Nervous systems

67 DEEPAK.P
 Nervous systems
 This lines are not single lines but complicated networks.

 Information signal are normally coded by means of electro

chemical pulses that travel along the nerves.

 The output control signals are channeled to specific motor

devices(motor units of muscles)

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 Nervous systems
 In addition to brain , a large number of simple decision making

g devices(Spinal reflexes) are present to control directly

certain motor devices from certain sensory inputs.


69 DEEPAK.P
 Divisions of Nervous systems
 The human nervous system can be divided into three main parts:
1. Central nervous system (CNS)
*is composed of brain and spinal cord...*

2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

*is composed of all body nerves that lie outside of your
central nervous system...*

3. Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

*Controls the involuntary actions of your body organs...*

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 1. Central Nervous systems
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Structures of the CNS:
[1]  Brain
[2]  Spinal cord

The CNS coordinates and interprets

information to determine the best
response 

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 Anatomy of the Central Nervous systems

Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Brain stem

Spinal cord

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 2. Peripheral Nervous systems
 The primary role of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the

organs, limbs and skin.

 The nerves that make up the peripheral nervous system are

actually the axons or bundles of axons from neuron cells.

 The peripheral nervous system is divided into two parts:

The somatic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system

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 Somatic Nervous systems
 The somatic system is the part of the peripheral nervous

system responsible for carrying sensory and motor

information to and from the central nervous system.
 This system contains two major types of neurons:
Sensory neurons (or afferent neurons) that carry information

from the nerves to the central nervous system.

Motor neurons (or efferent neurons) that carry information from

the brain and spinal cord to muscle fibers throughout the body.

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 3. Autonomic Nervous systems
 The autonomic system is the part of the peripheral nervous

system responsible for regulating involuntary (reflex/Un

intentional)body functions, such as blood flow, heartbeat,
digestion and breathing.

 This system is further divided into two branches:

 The sympathetic system regulates the flight-or-fight responses.

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 Autonomic Nervous systems
 The "fight or flight response" is our body's primitive,
automatic, inborn response that prepares the body to "fight" or
"flee" from perceived attack, harm or threat to our survival.

 Parasympathetic system helps maintain normal body

functions and conserves physical resources

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 Anatomy of the Nervous systems
 Basic unit of nervous system is the neuron.

 Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system.

 Neuron is a single cell with a cell body.

 It is sometimes called soma

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 Anatomy of the Nervous systems
 Neuron cells are the information-processing units of the brain

responsible for receiving and transmitting information.

 One or more I/P fibers branches are called dendrites

 Long transmitting fiber is called axon

 Each part of the neuron plays a role in the communication of

information throughout the body.

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 Anatomy of the Nervous systems

79
 Anatomy of the Nervous systems
 Neurons
 Composed of:
 a. Cell Body
Part that contains the nucleus
 b. Dendrite(s)
Carries a nerve impulse towards the cell body
 c. Axon(s)
Carries a nerve impulse away from the cell body (and
towards the dendrite of the next neuron)

 Axons are also called nerve fibers.

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 Types of Neurons
 The three basic types of idealized neurons include;

 Bipolar, (Pseudo)
 Uni polar
 Multi polar neurons,

 Typically these neurons are found in different places around

the body:

81
 Types of Neurons

82
 Types of Neurons
 Bipolar – Specialized sensory neurons for the transmission of
special senses.

 As such, they are part of the sensory pathways for smell, sight,
taste and hearing functions.

 The most common example are the bipolar neurons found in

the retina

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 Types of Neurons
(Pseudo) Unipolar

Many types of primary sensory neurons

are Unipolar.

Multi polar – Multi polar neurons

constitute the majority of neurons in
the brain and include motor neurons
and interneuron's.

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 Sources of Biomedical Signals

85
 Sources of Biomedical Signals


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 Bio- Potential Electrodes

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 Measurement of Bioelectric
potentials
 To measure bioelectric potentials , a transducer is required.

 Electrical signals produced by various body activities are

used in monitoring / diagnosis

 In order to measure and record potentials and, hence, currents

in the body, it is necessary to provide some interface

between the body and the electronic measuring apparatus.

.
88
 Bio Potential Electrodes
 Bio-potential electrodes carry out this interface function.

 A transducer consists of two electrodes, which measure ionic

potential difference between two points.

 The designation of the Bio potential waveform ends with

“Gram”.

 The name of the instrument bio potential normally ends

with “Graph”

89
 Bio Potential Electrodes
 Propagation of action potential through different body tissues

produces final waveform recorded by electrodes

 Electrical activity is explained by differences in ion

concentrations within the body (sodium, Na+; cloride, Cl–;
potassium, K+)

 A potential difference (voltage) occurs between 2 points with

different ionic concentrations

90
 Electrodes Theory

91
Metal Electrode
Equivalent circuit for bio-potential electrode

Electrolytes
Body
Vha=Electrode potential developed across interface

C=Charges at the Interface at the skin metal interface

92
 Equivalent circuit for bio-potential
with two electrode

94
 Bio Potential Electrodes
 Bio-potential electrodes transduce ionic conduction to

electronic conduction so that bio-potential signals can be

obtained
 They generally consist of metal contacts packaged so that they

can be easily attached to the skin or other body tissues

95
 Classification of Electrodes

96
 Bio Potential Electrodes
1. Micro Electrodes--- Bio electric potential near or within a
single cell
Metal Type—Tip must be tungsten or stainless steel
Micro pipette---It is a glass micropipet with size of 1
micron, It is filled with electrolyte

2. Skin surface electrode —Measure ECG,EEG,EMG

3. Needle electrode ---Penetrate the skin to record EEG

97
 Microelectrodes
Used to measure bio-potential signals at
the cellular level

Due to small dimensions (mm),

impedance levels are high

So amplifier needs very high input

impedance
Microelectrodes
METAL MICROELECTRODES
MICROPIPETTE ELECTRODES
 Surface electrodes
These are placed in contact with the skin of
the subject

Early stages immersion electrodes were

used.

A bucket of saline water is used

An improvement of immersion electrode is

the plate electrode.

Another old type electrode is suction type

Immersion electrodes
Surface electrodes
 METAL-PLATE ELECTRODES
Historically, one of the most frequently used forms of
bio-potential sensing electrodes is the metal-plate
electrode.

In its simplest form, it consists of a metallic

conductor in contact with the skin.

An electrolyte soaked pad or gel is used to establish

and maintain the contact.
METAL-PLATE ELECTRODES
 Floating electrodes
Conductive paste reduces effect of
electrode slippage and resulting motion
artifact
 Needle electrodes
Unipolar electrode---Single wire inside a needle

Bipolar electrode---Two wires inside a needle

Mostly used for contacting with internal body

tissues
(a) Insulated needle electrode .
(b) Coaxial needle electrode .
(c) Bipolar coaxial electrode .
(d) Fine -wire electrode connected to
hypodermic needle, before being inserted .
(e) Coiled fine -wire electrode in place
Needle electrodes
Implantable electrodes
ELECTRODE ARRAYS
ELECTRODE ARRAYS
 Transducers

113
 Transducers
 A transducer is necessary to convert one variable in to another
form

 Used to measure physiological variables

 Variable is a quantity that vary with time.

 The term active and passive has different meaning when they
are applied to Transducers

114
 Transducers
 Transducer can be classified in to two
 Active Transducer
Known principles is used to convert variables in to
electrical signal
 Passive Transducer
It involves control of an excitation voltage or modulation
of a carrier signal

115
 Principles used in Active Transducers
 It can convert electrical signal in to physical variables and
also in reverse direction.

1. Magnetic Induction

2. Piezoelectric effect

3. Thermoelectric effect

4. Photoelectric effect

116
 Passive Transducers
 Utilize the principles of controlling a DC excitation or an AC
carrier signal.

 It consists of a passive circuit element which changes it value

as a function of physical variables to be measured.

 It cannot convert electrical signal in to physical variables

117
 Principles used in Passive Transducers
 Using Resistive element
1. Ordinary Potentiometer
a. Linear
b. Rotary
2. Strain gage
a. Un bonded
b. Bonded
c. Semiconductor strain gage
 Using Inductive element
1. Variable reluctance Transducer
 LVDT
• Using Capacitive element

118
 Transducers for Biomedical field
 Force transducer

 Photoelectric displacement transducer

 Pressure Transducers

 Flow transducers

 Transducers with digital O/P

119
 Transducers for Biomedical field
1. Resistive transducers - Muscle force and Stress (Strain guge),
Spirometry (Potentiont) , humidity, (Gamstrers), Respiration
(Thermistor)
2. Inductive Transducers - Flow measurements, muscle
movement (LVDT)
3. Capacitive Transducers - Heart sound measurement, Pulse
pick up
4. Photoelectric Transducers - Pulse transducers, Blood
pressure, oxygen Analyses
5. Piezoelectric Transducers - Pulse pickup, ultrasonic blood
flowmeter
6. Chemcial Transducer - Ag-Agfallas (Electrodes, PH electrode

120
 pH Electrode

121
 pH Electrode
 This is a device for measuring the concentration of hydrogen

ions and hence the degree of acidity of a solution.

 pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion

concentration.
 pH=7 means a concentration of 1x10-7 moles per litre.

 The most essential component of a pH electrode is a special,

sensitive glass membrane which permits the passage of

hydrogen ions, but no other ionic species.

122
 pH Electrode
 When the electrode is immersed in a test solution containing

hydrogen ions the external ions diffuse through the membrane

until an equilibrium is reached between the external and internal
concentrations.
 Thus there is a build up of charge on the inside of the membrane

which is proportional to the number of hydrogen ions in the

external solution.
 The potential difference developed across the membrane is in
fact directly proportional to the Logarithm of the ionic
concentration in the external solution.

123
 pH Electrode
 The relationship between the ionic concentration

(activity) and the electrode potential is given by the

Nernst equation:
 E = E0 + (2.303RT/ nF) x Log(A)
 Where 
 E = the total potential (in mV) developed between the sensing and reference electrodes.
 E0 = is a constant which is characteristic of the particular ISE/reference pair.
 (It is the sum of all the liquid junction potentials in the electrochemical cell, see later)
 2.303 = the conversion factor from natural to base10 logarithm.
 R = the Gas Constant (8.314 joules/degree/mole).
 T = the Absolute Temperature.
 n = the charge on the ion (with sign).
 F = the Faraday Constant (96,500 coulombs).
 Log(A) = the logarithm of the activity of the measured ion.

124
 pH Electrode


125
 Agcl Electrode

126
 Ag-Agcl Electrode


127
 Ag-Agcl Electrode
 A silver chloride electrode is a type of reference electrode,
commonly used in electrochemical measurements.

 The silver/silver chloride reference electrode is a widely used

reference electrode because it is simple, inexpensive, very stable
and non-toxic.

 Typical laboratory electrodes use a silver wire that is coated

with a thin layer of silver chloride either by electroplating or by
dipping the wire in molten silver chloride.

128
 Ag-Agcl Electrode
 The electrode functions as a redox electrode and
the reaction is between the silver metal (Ag) and
its salt — silver chloride (AgCl, also called silver(I)
chloride).

129