Immune system organisation

SPLIT INTO 2 AREAS –

NON SPECIFIC AND SPECIFIC

• NON-SPECIFIC IMMUNITY WORKS AGAINST

ANY TYPE OF DISEASE-CAUSING AGENT.Skin
and mucous membranes, Phagocytosis,
Inflammation, and The Complement System.
• SPECIFIC IMMUNITY WORKS AGAINST A
PARTICULAR PATHOGEN Humoral(Antibody-
Mediated) and Cell-Mediated
 Nonspecific Immune Response
• Physical and Mechanical Barrier’s
• Chemical Factor’s
• Biological Factor’s
• Phagocytosis and Associated with Blood and lymph

• Defenses that protect from ANY pathogen regardless

of type and species( Bacteria, Fungi, Protozoa, etc).
 Non-specific physical barriers
EPITHIAL cells
• The first line of defence against infection.
• Line the surfaces and cavities of the entire body.
• Form sheets/ layers of closely packed cells.
SECRETIONS
• Some Epithelial cells produce secretions such as enzymes,
hormones and lubricating fluids that can defend against
infection.
• Mucus traps dirt and germs, preventing them from entering
the blood.
• Various glands produce antimicrobial secretions that help
kill microbes.
 Physical and Mechanical Barrier’s
• THE SKIN: First Line Of Defense.
• Repels many organisms: difficult to get
through.
• Epithelium lines all body systems exposed to
external environments including the respiratory,
digestive and urinary systems.
• Secretes liquid which are mildly acidic which
hinder bacterial growth.
• Lack of nutrition for microbial growth.
 DEFENSES
– Dry
• usual infection sites are wet areas, skin folds, armpit,
groin
– Acidic (pH 3.0- 5.0)
– Temperature less than 37oC
• Some pathogens grow best <37oC
– Lysozyme and toxic lipids
• pore, hair follicles, sweat gland
– Resident microflora
• mainly G+
– Skin-associated lymphoid tissue (SALT)
• Tears and saliva contain lysozymes which
dissolve the wall of bacteria.
• Cilia of respiratory tract trap bacteria in
mucus.
CILIARY ESCALATOR.
 Flushing Mechanisms
• Epiglottis.
• Urine and Vaginal secretions.
• Sneezing, coughing, swallowing reflex
• Movement of Fluids across their surfaces
(Saliva)
• Washing action of tears
 CHEMICAL FACTORS.
• Sebum and fatty acids in skin ( e.g. unsaturated
fatty acids as Olic acid).
• Gastric Juice (Low pH stomach ).
• Lyzozyme: degrade the bacterial cell wall
• Antimicrobial peptides (β Lysine) with high
quantity of Lysine or Arginine. Act by
disruption of plasma membrane of
microorganisms.
• Kinins: cause vasodilation and increased
permeability of blood vessels.
• Prostaglandins: released by damaged cells, and
intensifies the effects of histamin and kinins.
• Leukotrienes: produced by mast cells and
basophils- Cause increased permeability, and
attract phagocytes to pathogens.
• Vasodilation and increased permeability of
blood vessels also help to deliver clotting
elements to injured area.
• Blood clots prevent microbe from spreading,
so a localized collection of pus results(abcess).
 phagocytosis
A phagocyte is motile (moves towards pathogen when chemicals
detected or antigens). It then engulfs pathogen (endocytosis) –
forming a phagocytic vesicle (vacuole) which merges with a lysosome.
Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes, which disposes of the pathogen
and released by exocytosis.
The phagocyte releases more cytokines – positive feedback
 Natural killer cells
2 1. Protein from NK cell
1 inserts a pore into the
target cell membrane
3
3 protease
2. Signal molecule 4
from NK enters cell
vital cell protein
4. “suicide” proteins made
5. “suicide” protein function to make degradative enzymes
(protease / DNAase). Destroying vital proteins/DNA

4 Useless fragments of DNA

5

DNAase
5

Useless fragments
of protein
DNA
 Inflammation.

• Inflammation - phagocytes & complement

recruited to site tissue invasion.

• Non-specific reaction to tissue damage.

• Cell damage initiates inflammation.

Inflammation.
• Vasodilation - swelling.
• Adhesion of leukocytes to
endothelial cells & migration
phagocytes into tissues.
• Redness (blood flow).
• Pain (prostaglandins).
• Heat (pyrogens).
• Inflammation localised to area
infection / injury and give pus.
•Once organisms destroyed
inflammation resolves.
Inflammation

Figure 22.13
 Non-specific immunity
• First line of defence are physical and
chemical barriers
Line of Specific (s) or Mechanism employed Function
defence non-specific (ns)
1st NS Skin barrier Epithelial cells intact
1st NS Mucus Traps microbes in respiratory and
gastrointestinal tract
Cilia Remove microbe by sweeping
1st NS Acid Contains hydrochloric acid at pH 1.5 -
2.5 which has a disinfecting action on
the stomach wall and contents.

1st NS Sweat and sebaceous Low pH inhibits microbial growth

1st NS Saliva and tears Enzymes lysozyme digests bacterial

walls so it destroys them
 Immune system organisation
• Second line of defence is the Inflammatory
response
• This occurs if the first line are breached, by
a cut/ piercing or an invasion of an
infectious organisms
 Immune system organisation
• Second line of defence is the Inflammatory
response
• This occurs if the first line are breached, by a
cut/ piercing or an invasion of an infectious
organisms
• First line are breached, by a cut/piercing or an invasion of an infectious
organisms, bacteria, trauma, toxins, heat or any other cause

• Mast cells (type of white blood cell) in the connective tissue, releases
histamine

• Histamine causes blood vessels to become more permeable

• Vasodilation of blood vessels by injured site; causing swelling due to

stretchy capillary wall
• Cytokines (cell signalling molecules – many types like TNF,
IL 1-10 etc.) also released by damaged cells / tissues

• Enhanced migration of phagocytes to the damaged tissue

by cytokines (phagocytes move to site) – next slide

• Cytokines also attract antimicrobial proteins to the

infected site which amplify immune response

• Cytokines attract blood clotting chemicals (complement)

to injury site thus preventing any blood loss / infection to
the wound and allows tissue repair to start
 INFLAMMATION: Second line of
defense.
• Inflammatory response results in increased
blood flow to infection; chemical attractants
and flow of fluid to wound ( vasodilation).
• Together these cause swelling, heat, and pain.
• Fluids include histamine and serotonine
(causes arterioles to dilate), and plasma
(contains clotting factors to wall off area.
Complement:complex of 17 proteins
(Glycoproteins) present in normal serum) C1,
C2, C3 …..etc. Function: Lysis of microbes,
Neutralization of viruses, Enhancement of
phagocytosis, Damage of plasma membrane,
Recruitment of Phagocytes,
Interferons : Family of Glycoproteins that
block Viral Replication by rendering host cells,
 Complement system
• THE PRESENCE OF BACTERIA AT THE
SITE OF INFECTION STIMULATES
ANTIMICROBIAL PROTEINS KNOWN
AS ‘COMPLEMENT’ TO ARRIVE AT THE
SITE OF INFECTION.
• THE COMPLEMENT SYSTEM HELPS
THE BODY TO RID ITSELF OF
INFECTION BY AMPLIFYING THE
IMMUNE RESPONSE.
 Cytokines ....
• Made by damaged tissue / white blood cells
• Enhance migration of phagocytes (chemotaxins -
chemoattractants) which engulf/digest pathogen and
release more cytokines
• Deliver antimicrobial proteins faster which amplifies
immune response
• Deliver blood clotting chemicals (complement) which seals
the wound and helps tissue repair

• Have a dual purpose; not only in the non-specific defence

but also specific defence system by triggering
lymphocytes (next lesson)
 Viral Interference and Interferon

• Infection by one virus renders host cells resistant to other, superinfecting viruses.
This phenomenon, called viral interference

• interference are caused by competition among different viruses for critical

replicative pathways (extracellular competition for cell surface receptors,
intracellular competition for biosynthetic machinery and genetic control)
• The infected cells may respond to viral infection by producing interferon
proteins, which can react with uninfected cells to render them resistant to
infection by a wide variety of viruses.
The important role played by interferon as documented by three types of
experimental and clinical observations:
(1) for many viral infections, a strong correlation has been established
between interferon production and natural recovery;
(2) inhibition of interferon production or action enhances the severity of
infection; and
(3) treatment with interferon protects against infection.

The interferon system is one of the earliest appearing of known host defenses,
becoming operative within hours of infection.
Production of virus, interferon, and antibody during experimental
infection of humans with influenza wild-type virus.
Induction of beta interferon, alpha interferon, and gamma interferon,
respectively, by foreign nucleic acids, foreign cells, and foreign antigens
Cellular events of the induction, production, and action of interferon
Molecular mechanisms of interferon antiviral actions
Interferon During Natural Infection
The importance of interferon in the response to certain natural virus
infections varies. Much depends on the effectiveness of the virus in
stimulating interferon production and on its susceptibility to the
antiviral action of interferon. Interferon protects solid tissues during
virus infection; it is also disseminated through the bloodstream during
viremia, thereby protecting distant organs against the spreading
infection. Cells protected against viral replication may eliminate virus
by degrading the virus genome
Nonspecific elimination of viruses by cells
 Cells, tissues and organs of
the immune system
• Immune cells are bone marrow-derived, & distributed through out
the body

• Primary lymphoid organs:

– Thymus: T cell maturation
– Bone marrow (bursa of Fabricius in birds): B cell maturation

• Secondary lymphoid organs:

– Lymph nodes
– Spleen
– Mucosal lymphoid tissues (lung, gut)
 2º
2º

1º
Major Tissues
2º
2º
• Primary Lymph
2º tissues
2º – Cells originate
or mature
2º
1º
• Secondary
Lymph Tissues
COMPONENTS OF THE
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.
Dendritic cell
(sentinel)
The bursa of Fabricius in birds